Ephesus 29/20 BCE         Obverse TYPE: Octavian laureate LEGEND: IMP(erator) CAESAR DIVI F(ilius) COS VI LIBERTATIS P(opuli) R(omani) VINDEX

Begin reading the legend from the lower left (about 7 on the clock)

IMP(erator) = commander

CAESAR DIVI F you know by now

COS VI refers to Octavian's 6th consulship (28 BCE); when consulships or other offices or honors are listed in the legend, it provides an absolute means of dating the coin. In many other cases, coins must be dated relatively, that is, relative to the hoards in which they are found.

LIBERTATIS P(opuli) R(omani) VINDEX = defender/protector of the liberty of the Roman people

• VINDEX coins allude to Octavian's defeat of Caesar's assassins at Philippi (42 BCE) and to his victory at Actium (31 BCE) as 'defense of liberty'. The tyrannicides had promoted themselves as defenders of liberty when they killed Caesar; Octavian arrogates the message, and the role, for himself.