GLOSSARY FOR THE STUDY OF CHRISTIANITY

This is Donald Gerardi’s edited version of the Glossary for the Study of Jusaism, Christianity and Islam, version 9112 (1991 December), uncopyrightable factual information. Prepared initially by Robert A. Kraft, University of Pennsylvania, and intended to be used freely in the public domain in this and any updated versions (based partly on materials from introductory textbooks by Phillip Sigal, Jacob Neusner, Michael Fishbane, Sandra Frankiel, Frederick Denny, Kenneth Cragg).

coding:
* indicates that the word/term that follows is a glossary entry.
<a>...</> Arabic word, especially used in Islamic studies.
<h>...</> Hebrew (or Aramaic) word, especially used in Judaism.
<g>...</> Greek word, especially used in Christianity.
<l>...</> Latin word, especially used in Christianity.
\diacritics follow the letter to which they pertain.coding:
* indicates that the word/term that follows is a glossary entry.
<a>...</> Arabic word, especially used in Islamic studies.
<h>...</> Hebrew (or Aramaic) word, especially used in Judaism.
<g>...</> Greek word, especially used in Christianity.
<l>...</> Latin word, especially used in Christianity.
\diacritics follow the letter to which they pertain.

Abraham (adj. Abrahamic). The *patriarch who is acknowledged as a special early figure in the histories and folklore of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Presumed to have lived sometime in the period 2000-1700 BCE; father of Ishmael by Hagar and of Isaac by Sarah. See *Bible Genesis 12-25; NT Galatians 3-4; Quran 37.83=113, 2.124-140, and frequently. Abraham (adj. Abrahamic). The *patriarch who is acknowledged as a special early figure in the histories and folklore of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Presumed to have lived sometime in the period 2000-1700 BCE; father of Ishmael by Hagar and of Isaac by Sarah. See *Bible Genesis 12-25; NT Galatians 3-4; Quran 37.83=113, 2.124-140, and frequently. 

AD = <l>anno domini</> ("year of the Lord"). See *CE. AD = <l>anno domini</> ("year of the Lord"). See *CE. AD = <l>anno domini</> ("year of the Lord"). See *CE. AD = <l>anno domini</> ("year of the Lord"). See *CE.

am haaretz (pl. <h>ammey haaretz</>; Heb., "people of the land"). A term used in Jewish *scriptures for citizens, or some particular class of citizens; in rabbinic literature, for persons or groups that dissented from or were uninstructed in rabbinic *halakah and rigorous purity and tithing norms. It sometimes signifies the unlearned, sometimes is used condescendingly (boor). It was also used of the broad mass of Jewish people of the 1st century CE, who cannot be categorized into any of the sub-groups of the time. See also *Pharisees. am haaretz (pl. <h>ammey haaretz</>; Heb., "people of the land"). A term used in Jewish *scriptures for citizens, or some particular class of citizens; in rabbinic literature, for persons or groups that dissented from or were uninstructed in rabbinic *halakah and rigorous purity and tithing norms. It sometimes signifies the unlearned, sometimes is used condescendingly (boor). It was also used of the broad mass of Jewish people of the 1st century CE, who cannot be categorized into any of the sub-groups of the time. See also *Pharisees. 

Anglican Churches. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, the designation for the Church of England which, after Henry VIII broke with the Pope in 1534, declared its independence from the Roman Catholic Church. It retained the tradition of Catholic sacraments and bishops while following some ideals of the Protestant reformers; from the early 19th century, a term for a worldwide group of churches which recognize the primacy among equals of the Archbishop of Canterbury. In the United States the church is called the Episcopal Church.. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, the designation for the Church of England which, after Henry VIII broke with the Pope in 1534, declared its independence from the Roman Catholic Church. It retained the tradition of Catholic sacraments and bishops while following some ideals of the Protestant reformers; from the early 19th century, a term for a worldwide group of churches which recognize the primacy among equals of the Archbishop of Canterbury. In the United States the church is called the Episcopal Church.

apocalypse (adj. apocalyptic). From the Greek, meaning "revelation." A genre of literature (attested in Jewish, Christian and Muslim traditions) in which the author claims to have received revelation(s), usually about the end-time, and expresses them in vivid symbolism. The *intertestamental Jewish and the early Christian apocalypses are often *pseudepigraphical. The final book of the Christian *NT is sometimes called (in accord with its Greek title) "the Apocalypse" (it is also known as "the book of Revelation"). apocalypse (adj. apocalyptic). From the Greek, meaning "revelation." A genre of literature (attested in Jewish, Christian and Muslim traditions) in which the author claims to have received revelation(s), usually about the end-time, and expresses them in vivid symbolism. The *intertestamental Jewish and the early Christian apocalypses are often *pseudepigraphical. The final book of the Christian *NT is sometimes called (in accord with its Greek title) "the Apocalypse" (it is also known as "the book of Revelation"). 

Apocrypha (adj. apocryphal). From the Greek, meaning "to hide" or "to uncover." It is used in a technical sense to refer to certain Jewish books written in the Hellenistic-Roman period that came to be included in the Old Greek Jewish scriptures (and thus in the Eastern Christian biblical *canon) and in the Latin Vulgate Roman Catholic canon, but not in the Jewish or Protestant biblical canons. See also *Bible, *Septuagint. Apocrypha (adj. apocryphal). From the Greek, meaning "to hide" or "to uncover." It is used in a technical sense to refer to certain Jewish books written in the Hellenistic-Roman period that came to be included in the Old Greek Jewish scriptures (and thus in the Eastern Christian biblical *canon) and in the Latin Vulgate Roman Catholic canon, but not in the Jewish or Protestant biblical canons. See also *Bible, *Septuagint. 

apology. A formal defense of the Christian faith. Several such writings were issued by Christian "apologists" such as Justin the Martyr during the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, addressed to the Roman rulers. apology. A formal defense of the Christian faith. Several such writings were issued by Christian "apologists" such as Justin the Martyr during the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, addressed to the Roman rulers. apology. A formal defense of the Christian faith. Several such writings were issued by Christian "apologists" such as Justin the Martyr during the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, addressed to the Roman rulers. apology. A formal defense of the Christian faith. Several such writings were issued by Christian "apologists" such as Justin the Martyr during the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, addressed to the Roman rulers.

apostle. Greek for "ambassador, legate"; compare Arabic *rasul. In early Christian circles, it was used to refer especially to the earliest missionaries sent out to preach the gospel message concerning *Jesus/Joshua, among whom Paul included himself (although he had not been an associate of Jesus/Joshua); traditionally, twelve of Jesus' close associates come to be called "the 12 Apostles" (also "the 12 disciples").

baptism. In earliest Christianity, the rite of ritual immersion in water which initiated a person (usually as an "adult") into the Christian *church. Very soon, pouring or sprinkling with water came into use in some churches, and the practice of baptizing infants.baptism. In earliest Christianity, the rite of ritual immersion in water which initiated a person (usually as an "adult") into the Christian *church. Very soon, pouring or sprinkling with water came into use in some churches, and the practice of baptizing infants.

BCE or bce = "before the common era"; an attempt to use a neutral term for the period traditionally labeled "BC" (before Christ) by Christians. Thus 586 BCE is identical to 586 BC. 

bishop. The rank in the *clergy of Roman *Catholic, Eastern *Orthodox, and *Anglican *churches above a *priest, with authority to ordain priests as well as perform other *sacraments. In the early church, an elected head of the church for an entire city; now, an appointed head of a diocese. (A few other churches, such as the Methodist and Mormon, also have the office of bishop.)bishop. The rank in the *clergy of Roman *Catholic, Eastern *Orthodox, and *Anglican *churches above a *priest, with authority to ordain priests as well as perform other *sacraments. In the early church, an elected head of the church for an entire city; now, an appointed head of a diocese. (A few other churches, such as the Methodist and Mormon, also have the office of bishop.)

born again. In modern Christianity, having experienced a true conversion and/or total dedication to Christ, usually in an in- tense emotional experience. Such language is usually used by *"evangelical" Christians. born again. In modern Christianity, having experienced a true conversion and/or total dedication to Christ, usually in an in- tense emotional experience. Such language is usually used by *"evangelical" Christians.

calendar. In general, Christianity operates on a "solar" calendar based on the relationship between the sun and the earth (365.25 days per year). The main Christian observances are *Easter, *Pentacost, and *Christmas. The Islamic calendar is "lunar," based on the relationship of earth and moon (354 days in a year). Thus every 100 solar years are equal to about 103 lunar years. Muslim calendric observances include fasting during the month of *Ramadan, followed by the feast of fast breaking (*id al-fitr), and the time for pilgrimage to Mecca (*hajj) and associated practices such as the Feast of *Sacrifice. Judaism follows a lunar calandar adjusted every three years or so to the solar cycle (by adding a second 12th month) -- thus "lunisolar." The oldest Jewish annual observances are *Passover/pesah, *Shevuot, *Yom Kippur and *Sukkot; other ancient celebrations include *Rosh ha-shana, *Simhat Torah, *Hannukah and *Purim. See also *BCE, *CE, *AH. calendar. In general, Christianity operates on a "solar" calendar based on the relationship between the sun and the earth (365.25 days per year). The main Christian observances are *Easter, *Pentacost, and *Christmas. The Islamic calendar is "lunar," based on the relationship of earth and moon (354 days in a year). Thus every 100 solar years are equal to about 103 lunar years. Muslim calendric observances include fasting during the month of *Ramadan, followed by the feast of fast breaking (*id al-fitr), and the time for pilgrimage to Mecca (*hajj) and associated practices such as the Feast of *Sacrifice. Judaism follows a lunar calandar adjusted every three years or so to the solar cycle (by adding a second 12th month) -- thus "lunisolar." The oldest Jewish annual observances are *Passover/pesah, *Shevuot, *Yom Kippur and *Sukkot; other ancient celebrations include *Rosh ha-shana, *Simhat Torah, *Hannukah and *Purim. See also *BCE, *CE, *AH. calendar. In general, Christianity operates on a "solar" calendar based on the relationship between the sun and the earth (365.25 days per year). The main Christian observances are *Easter, *Pentacost, and *Christmas. The Islamic calendar is "lunar," based on the relationship of earth and moon (354 days in a year). Thus every 100 solar years are equal to about 103 lunar years. Muslim calendric observances include fasting during the month of *Ramadan, followed by the feast of fast breaking (*id al-fitr), and the time for pilgrimage to Mecca (*hajj) and associated practices such as the Feast of *Sacrifice. Judaism follows a lunar calandar adjusted every three years or so to the solar cycle (by adding a second 12th month) -- thus "lunisolar." The oldest Jewish annual observances are *Passover/pesah, *Shevuot, *Yom Kippur and *Sukkot; other ancient celebrations include *Rosh ha-shana, *Simhat Torah, *Hannukah and *Purim. See also *BCE, *CE, *AH. calendar. In general, Christianity operates on a "solar" calendar based on the relationship between the sun and the earth (365.25 days per year). The main Christian observances are *Easter, *Pentacost, and *Christmas. The Islamic calendar is "lunar," based on the relationship of earth and moon (354 days in a year). Thus every 100 solar years are equal to about 103 lunar years. Muslim calendric observances include fasting during the month of *Ramadan, followed by the feast of fast breaking (*id al-fitr), and the time for pilgrimage to Mecca (*hajj) and associated practices such as the Feast of *Sacrifice. Judaism follows a lunar calandar adjusted every three years or so to the solar cycle (by adding a second 12th month) -- thus "lunisolar." The oldest Jewish annual observances are *Passover/pesah, *Shevuot, *Yom Kippur and *Sukkot; other ancient celebrations include *Rosh ha-shana, *Simhat Torah, *Hannukah and *Purim. See also *BCE, *CE, *AH.

canon, canonical scripturecanon, canonical scripture. The books of the *Bible recognized as authoritative and divinely revealed. See also *Apocrypha.

cardinal. An official in the Roman *Catholic Christian *church next below the *pope, appointed by the pope as a member of the "college" of cardinals which was formed in the middle ages to assist the pope and elect new popes. cardinal. An official in the Roman *Catholic Christian *church next below the *pope, appointed by the pope as a member of the "college" of cardinals which was formed in the middle ages to assist the pope and elect new popes. cardinal. An official in the Roman *Catholic Christian *church next below the *pope, appointed by the pope as a member of the "college" of cardinals which was formed in the middle ages to assist the pope and elect new popes. cardinal. An official in the Roman *Catholic Christian *church next below the *pope, appointed by the pope as a member of the "college" of cardinals which was formed in the middle ages to assist the pope and elect new popes.

catechism. In early Christian usage, oral instruction in doctrine; can mean any official summary of doctrine used to teach newcomers to the faith.catechism. In early Christian usage, oral instruction in doctrine; can mean any official summary of doctrine used to teach newcomers to the faith.

catechumen. One receiving instruction in basic doctrines (*catechism) before *baptism or, if already baptized as an infant, before *confirmation or first *communion. catechumen. One receiving instruction in basic doctrines (*catechism) before *baptism or, if already baptized as an infant, before *confirmation or first *communion. catechumen. One receiving instruction in basic doctrines (*catechism) before *baptism or, if already baptized as an infant, before *confirmation or first *communion. catechumen. One receiving instruction in basic doctrines (*catechism) before *baptism or, if already baptized as an infant, before *confirmation or first *communion.

catholic, catholicism (from Greek meaning "universal, worldwide"). A selfdesignation used in early Christianity to suggest universality over against factionalism (see *orthodoxy, *heresy); thence it became a technical name for the western, Roman Catholic church. catholic, catholicism (from Greek meaning "universal, worldwide"). A selfdesignation used in early Christianity to suggest universality over against factionalism (see *orthodoxy, *heresy); thence it became a technical name for the western, Roman Catholic church. catholic, catholicism (from Greek meaning "universal, worldwide"). A selfdesignation used in early Christianity to suggest universality over against factionalism (see *orthodoxy, *heresy); thence it became a technical name for the western, Roman Catholic church. (from Greek meaning "universal, worldwide"). A self designation used in early Christianity to suggest universality over against factionalism (see *orthodoxy, *heresy); thence it became a technical name for the western, Roman Catholic church.

CE CE or ce = "common era"; an attempt to use a neuteral term for the period traditionally labeled "AD" (<l>anno domini</> or "year of the Lord") by Christians. Thus 1992 CE is identical to AD 1992. 

celibacy. The practice of refraining from sexual relationships in the interest of religious purity, known in Judaism among the *Essenes and developed extensively in Christianity (see *monk, *priest).celibacy. The practice of refraining from sexual relationships in the interest of religious purity, known in Judaism among the *Essenes and developed extensively in Christianity (see *monk, *priest).

chiliastic. From the Greek for "1000." Pertaining to the (Christian) belief that Christ will reign for a thousand years in the end-times; also called *millenarian (from the Latin). chiliastic. From the Greek for "1000." Pertaining to the (Christian) belief that Christ will reign for a thousand years in the end-times; also called *millenarian (from the Latin).

Christ. Greek translation of <h>meshiah</> (see messiah, below). Applied to *Jesus/Joshua of Nazareth by his followers as a title, but soon came to be treated as a sort of second name.Christ. Greek translation of <h>meshiah</> (see messiah, below). Applied to *Jesus/Joshua of Nazareth by his followers as a title, but soon came to be treated as a sort of second name.

Christmas (*mass for birth of *Christ). A relatively late developing annual Christian festival (see *calendar), now held on the fixed date of 25 December in most *churches. In earlier times (by the 4th century), the celebration of Jesus' birth tended to be in the spring, around the time of *Easter. Its observation in proximity to the winter solstice (shortest day of the year) encouraged the inclusion and development of many aspects that were not present or important in this celebration. Christmas (*mass for birth of *Christ). A relatively late developing annual Christian festival (see *calendar), now held on the fixed date of 25 December in most *churches. In earlier times (by the 4th century), the celebration of Jesus' birth tended to be in the spring, around the time of *Easter. Its observation in proximity to the winter solstice (shortest day of the year) encouraged the inclusion and development of many aspects that were not present or important in this celebration. Christmas (*mass for birth of *Christ). A relatively late developing annual Christian festival (see *calendar), now held on the fixed date of 25 December in most *churches. In earlier times (by the 4th century), the celebration of Jesus' birth tended to be in the spring, around the time of *Easter. Its observation in proximity to the winter solstice (shortest day of the year) encouraged the inclusion and development of many aspects that were not present or important in this celebration. Christmas (*mass for birth of *Christ). A relatively late developing annual Christian festival (see *calendar), now held on the fixed date of 25 December in most *churches. In earlier times (by the 4th century), the celebration of Jesus' birth tended to be in the spring, around the time of *Easter. Its observation in proximity to the winter solstice (shortest day of the year) encouraged the inclusion and development of many aspects that were not present or important in this celebration.

church (Greek <g>ekklesia</>, "summoned group"; see "ecclesiastical," etc.). The designation traditionally used for a specifically Christian assembly or body of people, and thus also the building or location in which the assembled people meet, and by extension also the specific organized sub-group within Christianity (e.g. *Catholic, *Protestant, Methodist, etc.). Similar to *synagogue and *kahal in Judaism. See also *mosque. church (Greek <g>ekklesia</>, "summoned group"; see "ecclesiastical," etc.). The designation traditionally used for a specifically Christian assembly or body of people, and thus also the building or location in which the assembled people meet, and by extension also the specific organized sub-group within Christianity (e.g. *Catholic, *Protestant, Methodist, etc.). Similar to *synagogue and *kahal in Judaism. See also *mosque. church (Greek <g>ekklesia</>, "summoned group"; see "ecclesiastical," etc.). The designation traditionally used for a specifically Christian assembly or body of people, and thus also the building or location in which the assembled people meet, and by extension also the specific organized sub-group within Christianity (e.g. *Catholic, *Protestant, Methodist, etc.). Similar to *synagogue and *kahal in Judaism. See also *mosque. church (Greek <g>ekklesia</>, "summoned group"; see "ecclesiastical," etc.). The designation traditionally used for a specifically Christian assembly or body of people, and thus also the building or location in which the assembled people meet, and by extension also the specific organized sub-group within Christianity (e.g. *Catholic, *Protestant, Methodist, etc.). Similar to *synagogue and *kahal in Judaism. See also *mosque.

circumcision. The minor surgical removal of the skin covering the tip of the penis. In Judaism, it is ritually performed when a boy is eight days old in a ceremony called <h>brit milah</>, which indicates that the ritual establishes a *covenant between God and the individual. In Islam, it is performed at the age of puberty.circumcision. The minor surgical removal of the skin covering the tip of the penis. In Judaism, it is ritually performed when a boy is eight days old in a ceremony called <h>brit milah</>, which indicates that the ritual establishes a *covenant between God and the individual. In Islam, it is performed at the age of puberty.

classical Judaism, Christianity. The forms of the religions that have survived as traditional throughout the centuries. See *rabbinic, *orthodox.classical Judaism, Christianity. The forms of the religions that have survived as traditional throughout the centuries. See *rabbinic, *orthodox.

clergy. The body of ordained men (and in some churches women) in a *church, permitted to perform the *priestly and/or pastoral duties, as distinct from the *laity to whom they minister. clergy. The body of ordained men (and in some churches women) in a *church, permitted to perform the *priestly and/or pastoral duties, as distinct from the *laity to whom they minister. clergy. The body of ordained men (and in some churches women) in a *church, permitted to perform the *priestly and/or pastoral duties, as distinct from the *laity to whom they minister. clergy. The body of ordained men (and in some churches women) in a *church, permitted to perform the *priestly and/or pastoral duties, as distinct from the *laity to whom they minister.

commandments (Heb., mitzvot; sing., mitzvah). According to rabbinic Jewish tradition, there are 613 religious commandments referred to in the Torah (and elaborated upon by the rabbinic *sages). Of these, 248 are positive commandments and 365 are negative. The numbers respectively symbolize the fact that divine service must be expressed through all one's bodily parts during all the days of the year. In general, a <h>mitzvah</> refers to any act of religious duty or obligation; more colloquially, a <h>mitzvah</> refers to a "good deed." communion; also, "holy communion." A term used especially in Christian *Protestant circles for the *sacrament of receiving bread and wine as the body and blood of Christ (or as symbols thereof), also known as the Lord's supper or the *eucharist. commandments (Heb., mitzvot; sing., mitzvah). According to rabbinic Jewish tradition, there are 613 religious commandments referred to in the Torah (and elaborated upon by the rabbinic *sages). Of these, 248 are positive commandments and 365 are negative. The numbers respectively symbolize the fact that divine service must be expressed through all one's bodily parts during all the days of the year. In general, a <h>mitzvah</> refers to any act of religious duty or obligation; more colloquially, a <h>mitzvah</> refers to a "good deed." communion; also, "holy communion." A term used especially in Christian *Protestant circles for the *sacrament of receiving bread and wine as the body and blood of Christ (or as symbols thereof), also known as the Lord's supper or the *eucharist. commandments (Heb., mitzvot; sing., mitzvah). According to rabbinic Jewish tradition, there are 613 religious commandments referred to in the Torah (and elaborated upon by the rabbinic *sages). Of these, 248 are positive commandments and 365 are negative. The numbers respectively symbolize the fact that divine service must be expressed through all one's bodily parts during all the days of the year. In general, a <h>mitzvah</> refers to any act of religious duty or obligation; more colloquially, a <h>mitzvah</> refers to a "good deed." communion; also, "holy communion." A term used especially in Christian *Protestant circles for the *sacrament of receiving bread and wine as the body and blood of Christ (or as symbols thereof), also known as the Lord's supper or the *eucharist. commandments (Heb., mitzvot; sing., mitzvah). According to rabbinic Jewish tradition, there are 613 religious commandments referred to in the Torah (and elaborated upon by the rabbinic *sages). Of these, 248 are positive commandments and 365 are negative. The numbers respectively symbolize the fact that divine service must be expressed through all one's bodily parts during all the days of the year. In general, a <h>mitzvah</> refers to any act of religious duty or obligation; more colloquially, a <h>mitzvah</> refers to a "good deed." communion; also, "holy communion." A term used especially in Christian *Protestant circles for the *sacrament of receiving bread and wine as the body and blood of Christ (or as symbols thereof), also known as the Lord's supper or the *eucharist.

conversion, convert (from Latin, "to turn around"). In general religious usage, the act of changing alliegance from one group to another. In (especially *evangelical) Christian usage, it can also mean to accept a particular interpretation of the Christian faith (see also *born again). conversion, convert (from Latin, "to turn around"). In general religious usage, the act of changing alliegance from one group to another. In (especially *evangelical) Christian usage, it can also mean to accept a particular interpretation of the Christian faith (see also *born again). conversion, convert (from Latin, "to turn around"). In general religious usage, the act of changing alliegance from one group to another. In (especially *evangelical) Christian usage, it can also mean to accept a particular interpretation of the Christian faith (see also *born again). (from Latin, "to turn around"). In general religious usage, the act of changing allegiance from one group to another. In (especially *evangelical) Christian usage, it can also mean to accept a particular interpretation of the Christian faith (see also *born again).

conviction. In modern Christianity (especially of the *"evangelical" sorts), the state in which one recognizes one's sinfulness and guilt before God, preliminary to experiencing *conversion. conviction. In modern Christianity (especially of the *"evangelical" sorts), the state in which one recognizes one's sinfulness and guilt before God, preliminary to experiencing *conversion. conviction. In modern Christianity (especially of the *"evangelical" sorts), the state in which one recognizes one's sinfulness and guilt before God, preliminary to experiencing *conversion. conviction. In modern Christianity (especially of the *"evangelical" sorts), the state in which one recognizes one's sinfulness and guilt before God, preliminary to experiencing *conversion.

covenant. A pact between two parties. The major covenants in Jewish scriptures are God's covenant with Abraham (Genesis 15), and the Sinai/Moses covenant (Exodus 19-24) between God and Israel. In Judaism, the covenant (Hebrew, <h>brit</>) is a major theological concept referring to the eternal bond between God and the people of Israel grounded in God's gracious and steadfast concern (Hebrew, <h>h.esed</>) that calls for the nation's obedience to the divine commandments (mitzvot) and instruction (torah). For Christianity (e.g. Paul), God has made a "new covenant" (rendered as "new testament" in older English) with the followers of *Jesus/Joshua in the last times, superseding the "old covenant" (thus, "old testament") with Moses at Sinai (see Jeremiah 31.31-34).covenant. A pact between two parties. The major covenants in Jewish scriptures are God's covenant with Abraham (Genesis 15), and the Sinai/Moses covenant (Exodus 19-24) between God and Israel. In Judaism, the covenant (Hebrew, <h>brit</>) is a major theological concept referring to the eternal bond between God and the people of Israel grounded in God's gracious and steadfast concern (Hebrew, <h>h.esed</>) that calls for the nation's obedience to the divine commandments (mitzvot) and instruction (torah). For Christianity (e.g. Paul), God has made a "new covenant" (rendered as "new testament" in older English) with the followers of *Jesus/Joshua in the last times, superseding the "old covenant" (thus, "old testament") with Moses at Sinai (see Jeremiah 31.31-34).

David. Jewish folkhero around 1000 BCE, to whom many *biblical psalms are attributed and who is credited with politically and militarily uniting the ancient *Israelite *amphictyony into a centralized kingdom with *Jerusalem as its capital. David is said to have planned for the *Temple which his son and successor Solomon built.David. Jewish folkhero around 1000 BCE, to whom many *biblical psalms are attributed and who is credited with politically and militarily uniting the ancient *Israelite *amphictyony into a centralized kingdom with *Jerusalem as its capital. David is said to have planned for the *Temple which his son and successor Solomon built.

deacon (from Greek, "to serve"). The lowest ordained office in the Roman *Catholic *church (together with subdeacon), originally in charge of gathering and distributing the *eucharistic offerings, later a stage in seminary training. In modern *Protestant churches, a deacon may be an official elected to a certain responsibility in worship or administration. deacon (from Greek, "to serve"). The lowest ordained office in the Roman *Catholic *church (together with subdeacon), originally in charge of gathering and distributing the *eucharistic offerings, later a stage in seminary training. In modern *Protestant churches, a deacon may be an official elected to a certain responsibility in worship or administration. deacon (from Greek, "to serve"). The lowest ordained office in the Roman *Catholic *church (together with subdeacon), originally in charge of gathering and distributing the *eucharistic offerings, later a stage in seminary training. In modern *Protestant churches, a deacon may be an official elected to a certain responsibility in worship or administration. (from Greek, "to serve"). The lowest ordained office in the Roman *Catholic *church (together with sub deacon), originally in charge of gathering and distributing the *eucharistic offerings, later a stage in seminary training. In modern *Protestant churches, a deacon may be an official elected to a certain responsibility in worship or administration.

Dead Sea Scrolls. See *Qumran.Dead Sea Scrolls. See *Qumran.

decalogue. A Greek term referring to the ten commandments (Heb. <h>'aseret hadibrot</>) received by *Moses on Mount Sinai according to Jewish *scriptures (Exodus 2O.1-17; Deuteronomy 5.1- 21).decalogue. A Greek term referring to the ten commandments (Heb. <h>'aseret hadibrot</>) received by *Moses on Mount Sinai according to Jewish *scriptures (Exodus 2O.1-17; Deuteronomy 5.1- 21).

denomination. Subdivision within a religious movement, especially with reference to mainstream *Protestant Christianity where Baptists, Methodists, Presbyterians, etc. are called "denominations." Usually distinguished from "sects" or "cults" which by implication have less "official" status.denomination. Subdivision within a religious movement, especially with reference to mainstream *Protestant Christianity where Baptists, Methodists, Presbyterians, etc. are called "denominations." Usually distinguished from "sects" or "cults" which by implication have less "official" status.

dogma. In Christianity, an authoritative statement of belief; official doctrine.dogma. In Christianity, an authoritative statement of belief; official doctrine.

early Judaism, also sometimes called "formative," "proto-," "middle," and even "late" Judaism. Refers to *Judaism in the *intertestamental period (and slightly later) as a development from the religion of ancient *Israel, but prior to the emergence of its *classical, *rabbinic form in the early centuries CE. Easter. The most ancient Christian annual special day, commemorating the (death and) resurrection of *Jesus/Joshua in the spring, at the time of Jewish *Passover/Pesach (thus not a fixed day on the solar *calendar).early Judaism, also sometimes called "formative," "proto-," "middle," and even "late" Judaism. Refers to *Judaism in the *intertestamental period (and slightly later) as a development from the religion of ancient *Israel, but prior to the emergence of its *classical, *rabbinic form in the early centuries CE. Easter. The most ancient Christian annual special day, commemorating the (death and) resurrection of *Jesus/Joshua in the spring, at the time of Jewish *Passover/Pesach (thus not a fixed day on the solar *calendar).

Ebionites, Ebionism. A Judeo-Christian sect in the 2nd-4th centuries CE; accepted much of Mosaic Torah (circumcision, Sabbath, etc.) but rejected sacrifices; accepted *Jesus/Joshua as Messiah but not his divinity; some Ebionites opposed the doctrines of Paul.Ebionites, Ebionism. A Judeo-Christian sect in the 2nd-4th centuries CE; accepted much of Mosaic Torah (circumcision, Sabbath, etc.) but rejected sacrifices; accepted *Jesus/Joshua as Messiah but not his divinity; some Ebionites opposed the doctrines of Paul.

ecumenical (from Greek for "household," thus considering the world as a household). A Christian initiative to promote worldwide cooperation (with the ideal of unity) within that religion and with other faiths as well. ecumenical (from Greek for "household," thus considering the world as a household). A Christian initiative to promote worldwide cooperation (with the ideal of unity) within that religion and with other faiths as well. ecumenical (from Greek for "household," thus considering the world as a household). A Christian initiative to promote worldwide cooperation (with the ideal of unity) within that religion and with other faiths as well. ecumenical (from Greek for "household," thus considering the world as a household). A Christian initiative to promote worldwide cooperation (with the ideal of unity) within that religion and with other faiths as well.

election. A term used theologically in Judaism to indicate God's choice of Israel to receive the covenant -- a choice not based on the superiority or previous accomplishments of the people, but on God's graciousness (see covenant). In Christianity, the concept of election was applied to the "new Israel" of *Jesus' followers in the last times.election. A term used theologically in Judaism to indicate God's choice of Israel to receive the covenant -- a choice not based on the superiority or previous accomplishments of the people, but on God's graciousness (see covenant). In Christianity, the concept of election was applied to the "new Israel" of *Jesus' followers in the last times.

elect. In early Judaism and Christianity, refers to those considered to be chosen by God for a specific purpose; in some Christian predestinarian schemes (e.g. Calvinistic), "the elect" are those whom God has chosen (in advance) to have eternal life.elect. In early Judaism and Christianity, refers to those considered to be chosen by God for a specific purpose; in some Christian predestinarian schemes (e.g. Calvinistic), "the elect" are those whom God has chosen (in advance) to have eternal life.

eschatology (adj. eschatological; from Greek <g>eschaton</>, "last" or "the end-time"). Refers in general to what is expected to take place in the "last times" (from the inquirer's perspective); thus the study of the ultimate destiny or purpose of humankind and the world, how and when the end will occur, what the end or last period of history or existence will be like. See also *chiliastic/millenarian, *apocalypse/apocalyptic. eschatology (adj. eschatological; from Greek <g>eschaton</>, "last" or "the end-time"). Refers in general to what is expected to take place in the "last times" (from the inquirer's perspective); thus the study of the ultimate destiny or purpose of humankind and the world, how and when the end will occur, what the end or last period of history or existence will be like. See also *chiliastic/millenarian, *apocalypse/apocalyptic. eschatology (adj. eschatological; from Greek <g>eschaton</>, "last" or "the end-time"). Refers in general to what is expected to take place in the "last times" (from the inquirer's perspective); thus the study of the ultimate destiny or purpose of humankind and the world, how and when the end will occur, what the end or last period of history or existence will be like. See also *chiliastic/millenarian, *apocalypse/apocalyptic. eschatology (adj. eschatological; from Greek <g>eschaton</>, "last" or "the end-time"). Refers in general to what is expected to take place in the "last times" (from the inquirer's perspective); thus the study of the ultimate destiny or purpose of humankind and the world, how and when the end will occur, what the end or last period of history or existence will be like. See also *chiliastic/millenarian, *apocalypse/apocalyptic.

Essenes. The name of a Jewish sub-group in the 1st century CE according to *Josephus, *Philo and other sources. See also *Qumran. Essenes. The name of a Jewish sub-group in the 1st century CE according to *Josephus, *Philo and other sources. See also *Qumran.

etiology (also aetiology), from the Greek for "cause or origin." A term used to describe or label stories that claim to explain the reason for something being (or being called) what it is. For example, in the old Jewish creation story (Genesis 2.23), woman (<h>ishshah</>) is given that name because she has been "taken out of (the side or rib of) man" (<h>ish</>).etiology (also aetiology), from the Greek for "cause or origin." A term used to describe or label stories that claim to explain the reason for something being (or being called) what it is. For example, in the old Jewish creation story (Genesis 2.23), woman (<h>ishshah</>) is given that name because she has been "taken out of (the side or rib of) man" (<h>ish</>).

eucharist. The Christian *sacrament of receiving bread and wine as the body and blood of Christ (or as symbols thereof). This term is more often used for the sacrament in the Roman *Catholic, Eastern *Orthodox, and *Anglican *churches, *communion or "Lord's supper" in the *Protestant. eucharist. The Christian *sacrament of receiving bread and wine as the body and blood of Christ (or as symbols thereof). This term is more often used for the sacrament in the Roman *Catholic, Eastern *Orthodox, and *Anglican *churches, *communion or "Lord's supper" in the *Protestant.

evangelical, evangelizing, evangelistic (from Greek for "gospel," thus, gospel-centered). Those Christian *churches or movements that emphasize preaching that leads to repentance and conversion; in modern Christianity, evangelical beliefs usually includesalvation by faith based on a personal conversion experience andemphasis on the authority of the *canonical *scriptures (see also *fundamentalism). (from Greek for "gospel," thus, gospel-centered). Those Christian *churches or movements that emphasize preaching that leads to repentance and conversion; in modern Christianity, evangelical beliefs usually include salvation by faith based on a personal conversion experience and emphasis on the authority of the *canonical *scriptures (see also *fundamentalism). evangelical, evangelizing, evangelistic (from Greek for "gospel," thus, gospel-centered). 

excommunication. The act of religious authorities to deprive a person of membership or participation in the group; in Christianity, specifically exclusion from holy *communion.. The act of religious authorities to deprive a person of membership or participation in the group; in Christianity, specifically exclusion from holy *communion .excommunication. The act of religious authorities to deprive a person of membership or participation in the group; in Christianity, specifically exclusion from holy *communion.

Exodus (from Greek "to exit or go out"). Refers to the event of the Israelites leaving Egypt (see also *Passover) and to the biblical book (see *Pentateuch) that tells of that event. Exodus (from Greek "to exit or go out"). Refers to the event of the Israelites leaving Egypt (see also *Passover) and to the biblical book (see *Pentateuch) that tells of that event. Exodus (from Greek "to exit or go out"). Refers to the event of the Israelites leaving Egypt (see also *Passover) and to the biblical book (see *Pentateuch) that tells of that event. Exodus (from Greek "to exit or go out"). Refers to the event of the Israelites leaving Egypt (see also *Passover) and to the biblical book (see *Pentateuch) that tells of that event.

fundamentalism. A term originally applied to conservative, *Bible- centered *Protestant Christians, but more recently extended to apply to the religiously authoritarian of all sorts, including *classical Christians, Jews, and Muslims who interpret their *scriptures literally and in general favor a strict adherence to traditional doctrines and practices.. A term originally applied to conservative, *Bible- centered *Protestant Christians, but more recently extended to apply to the religiously authoritarian of all sorts, including *classical Christians, Jews, and Muslims who interpret their *scriptures literally and in general favor a strict adherence to traditional doctrines and practices. 

Friars. From the Latin word for brothers, members of one of the mendicant (begging) orders as distinct from the cloistered *monks.. From the Latin word for brothers, members of one of the mendicant (begging) orders as distinct from the cloistered *monks. 

gentile(s). In pre-Christian times, non-Jewish peoples; thereafter, non-Jewish and non-Christian (roughly synonymous with "pagan").

gnostic, Gnosticism. Derived from the Greek <g>gnosis</>, meaning "knowledge." Refers to various systems of belief characterized by a dualistic view of reality -- the God who created the material, phenomenal world, is different from (often antithetical to) the ultimate (hidden) God of pure spirit. Possession of secret gnosis frees a person from the evil material world and gives access to the spiritual world. Gnostic thought had a great impact on the eastern Mediterranean world in the 2nd to 4th century CE, often in a Christian form.. Derived from the Greek <g>gnosis</>, meaning "knowledge." Refers to various systems of belief characterized by a dualistic view of reality -- the God who created the material, phenomenal world, is different from (often antithetical to) the ultimate (hidden) God of pure spirit. Possession of secret gnosis frees a person from the evil material world and gives access to the spiritual world. Gnostic thought had a great impact on the eastern Mediterranean world in the 2nd to 4th century CE, often in a Christian form.

grace. In Christian thought, unmerited divine assistance on one's spiritual path; often conceived as a special blessing received in an intense experience, but also may include a sense of special direction in one's life. grace. In Christian thought, unmerited divine assistance on one's spiritual path; often conceived as a special blessing received in an intense experience, but also may include a sense of special direction in one's life. grace. 

great schism. The "split" between the western Latin (Roman Catholic) Christian *church and the eastern *Orthodox churches, culminating in 1053 CE when mutual excommunications were hurled.. The "split" between the western Latin (Roman Catholic) Christian *church and the eastern *Orthodox churches, culminating in 1053 CE when mutual excommunications were hurled.

halakah/halakha (adj. halakic). Any normative Jewish law, custom, practice, or rite -- or the entire complex. Halakha is law established or custom ratified by authoritative rabbinic jurists and teachers. Colloquially, if something is deemed halakhic, it is considered proper and normative behavior.). Any normative Jewish law, custom, practice, or rite -- or the entire complex. Halakha is law established or custom ratified by authoritative rabbinic jurists and teachers. Colloquially, if something is deemed halakhic, it is considered proper and normative behavior.

hasidim, hasidism. Lit. "pious ones"; the term may refer to Jews in various periods: (1) those who flourished in the 2nd century BCE in response to the persecutions of Antiochus Epiphanes and the start of the Maccabean revolt; (2) pietists in the 13th century; (3) followers of the movement of Hasidism founded in the 18th century by *Baal Shem Tov.. Lit. "pious ones"; the term may refer to Jews in various periods: (1) those who flourished in the 2nd century BCE in response to the persecutions of Antiochus Epiphanes and the start of the Maccabean revolt; (2) pietists in the 13th century; (3) followers of the movement of Hasidism founded in the 18th century by *Baal Shem Tov.

Hasmoneans. Descendants of Hashmon, a Jewish family that included the Maccabees and the high *priests and kings who ruled Judea from 142 to 63 BCE. Hasmoneans. Descendants of Hashmon, a Jewish family that included the Maccabees and the high *priests and kings who ruled Judea from 142 to 63 BCE. 

hellenism (adj. hellenistic; Greek word for "Greekish"). The civilization that spread from Greece through much of the ancient world from 333 (Alexendar the Great) to 63 (dominance of Rome) BCE. As a result, many elements of Greek culture (names, language, philosophy, athletics, architecture, etc.) penetrated the Near East. hellenism (adj. hellenistic; Greek word for "Greekish"). The civilization that spread from Greece through much of the ancient world from 333 (Alexendar the Great) to 63 (dominance of Rome) BCE. As a result, many elements of Greek culture (names, language, philosophy, athletics, architecture, etc.) penetrated the Near East. 

heresy (from Greek for "sub-group, sect"). See *minim, *heterodox, *bid`a; also *orthodoxy. heresy (from Greek for "sub-group, sect"). See *minim, *heterodox, *bid`a; also *orthodoxy.  

hermeneutics. Principles of interpretation (from the Greek, "to interpret, translate"). The term is often used with reference to the study of Jewish and Christian *scriptures. hermeneutics. Principles of interpretation (from the Greek, "to interpret, translate"). The term is often used with reference to the study of Jewish and Christian *scriptures.  

heterodox. Greek for "other opinioned." Refers to opinions or positions that differ from what is considered *"orthodox" or "traditional" at the time. A less judgmental term than "heretical," but with similar import. heterodox. Greek for "other opinioned." Refers to opinions or positions that differ from what is considered *"orthodox" or "traditional" at the time. A less judgmental term than "heretical," but with similar import. 

Hillel. Often called by the title "the Elder." Probably a Babylonian, Hillel was an important *sage of the *early Jewish period in *Palestine around the turn of the era. His teachings convey the *Pharisaic ideal, through many epigrams on humility and peace (found in _Sayings of the Fathers_ 1-2); and were fundamental in shaping the Pharisaic traditions and modes of interpretation. In rabbinic lore, Hillel is famous for a negative formulation of the "golden rule" (recited to a non-Jew): "What is hateful to you do not do to your fellow man. That is the whole Torah, the rest is commentary. Go and learn it." His style of legal reasoning is continued by his disciples, known as Beit Hillel ("House/School of Hillel"), and is typically contrasted with that of Shammai (a contemporary) and his school.. Often called by the title "the Elder." Probably a Babylonian, Hillel was an important *sage of the *early Jewish period in *Palestine around the turn of the era. His teachings convey the *Pharisaic ideal, through many epigrams on humility and peace (found in _Sayings of the Fathers_ 1-2); and were fundamental in shaping the Pharisaic traditions and modes of interpretation. In rabbinic lore, Hillel is famous for a negative formulation of the "golden rule" (recited to a non-Jew): "What is hateful to you do not do to your fellow man. That is the whole Torah, the rest is commentary. Go and learn it." His style of legal reasoning is continued by his disciples, known as Beit Hillel ("House/School of Hillel"), and is typically contrasted with that of Shammai (a contemporary) and his school.

holy spirit (= "holy ghost" [archaic]). In Judaism, the presence of God as evidenced in the speech of the *prophets and other divine manifestations; in Christianity, understood more generally as the active, guiding presence of God in the *church and its members. holy spirit (= "holy ghost" [archaic]). In Judaism, the presence of God as evidenced in the speech of the *prophets and other divine manifestations; in Christianity, understood more generally as the active, guiding presence of God in the *church and its members. 

icon. A painted religious image -- for example of Mary, *Jesus Christ, or a saint -- understood in Eastern *Orthodoxy to be a copy of a heavenly image. A painted religious image -- for example of Mary, *Jesus Christ, or a saint -- understood in Eastern *Orthodoxy to be a copy of a heavenly image.

immaculate conception. In *classical Christianity, the claim that the *Virgin Mary became pregnant with Jesus/Joshua under a special dispensation of God so that she remained pure, without the original sin usually transmitted through the sexual act. Feasts celebrating her conception were popular in the middle ages, although the act of recognizing this as an official doctrine (*dogma) of the Roman *Catholic church was not formalized by the *pope until 1854. Not to be confused with the doctrine of the *virgin birth of Jesus.. In *classical Christianity, the claim that the *Virgin Mary became pregnant with Jesus/Joshua under a special dispensation of God so that she remained pure, without the original sin usually transmitted through the sexual act. Feasts celebrating her conception were popular in the middle ages, although the act of recognizing this as an official doctrine (*dogma) of the Roman *Catholic church was not formalized by the *pope until 1854. Not to be confused with the doctrine of the *virgin birth of Jesus.

inquisition. Refers especially to the Christian Roman *Catholic court for investigating and punishing *heresy. The first *papal inquisitions began in the late twelfth century and were centralized under *pope Innocent III; another notable court was the Spanish inquisition in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.. Refers especially to the Christian Roman *Catholic court for investigating and punishing *heresy. The first *papal inquisitions began in the late twelfth century and were centralized under *pope Innocent III; another notable court was the Spanish inquisition in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

inter-testamental period. The period in which *early Judaism develops, between about 400 BCE (the traditional end date for Jewish *Bible = Christian *"Old Testament") and the 1st century CE (composition of the Christian *"New Testament"). The Jewish intertestamental literature includes the *Apocrypha (mostly preserved in Greek) and the *Pseudepigrapha (works from this period ascribed to ancient authors like Enoch, the *patriarchs, and Moses). This literature provides important background for understanding the period of Christian origins. The period in which *early Judaism develops, between about 400 BCE (the traditional end date for Jewish *Bible = Christian *"Old Testament") and the 1st century CE (composition of the Christian *"New Testament"). The Jewish inter-testamental literature includes the *Apocrypha (mostly preserved in Greek) and the *Pseudepigrapha (works from this period ascribed to ancient authors like Enoch, the *patriarchs, and Moses). This literature provides important background for understanding the period of Christian origins.  

Israel. A name given to the Jewish *patriarch Jacob according to the *etiology of Genesis 32.38. In Jewish *biblical times, this name refers to the northern tribes, but also to the entire nation. Historically, Jews have continued to regard themselves as the true continuation of the ancient Israelite national-religious community. The term thus has a strong cultural sense. In modern times, it also refers to the political state of Israel. Christians came to consider themselves to be the "true" Israel, thus also a continuation of the ancient traditions. Israel. A name given to the Jewish *patriarch Jacob according to the *etiology of Genesis 32.38. In Jewish *biblical times, this name refers to the northern tribes, but also to the entire nation. Historically, Jews have continued to regard themselves as the true continuation of the ancient Israelite national-religious community. The term thus has a strong cultural sense. In modern times, it also refers to the political state of Israel. Christians came to consider themselves to be the "true" Israel, thus also a continuation of the ancient traditions.  

Jerusalem. From the religious viewpoints of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, the main city in ancient *Palestine (= modern Israel), where the *Temple of David/Solomon had been located, *Jesus/Joshua had been crucified/resurrected, Muhammad had journeyed to heaven (his <a>miraj</>), among other significant things. Thus for all three religions, in some senses Jerusalem is a or the "holy city." Jerusalem. From the religious viewpoints of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, the main city in ancient *Palestine (= modern Israel), where the *Temple of David/Solomon had been located, *Jesus/Joshua had been crucified/resurrected, Muhammad had journeyed to heaven (his <a>miraj</>), among other significant things. Thus for all three religions, in some senses Jerusalem is a or the "holy city."  

Jesus/Joshua ("Jesus" is the Greek attempt to transliterate the Semitic name "Joshua"). The *Palestinian figure from the 1st century CE whose death and alleged resurrection as God's *Messiah/*Christ became foundational for an *early Jewish sub-group known as Nazarenes, from which "Christianity" ultimately developed as a separate religion. Jesus/Joshua ("Jesus" is the Greek attempt to transliterate the Semitic name "Joshua"). The *Palestinian figure from the 1st century CE whose death and alleged resurrection as God's *Messiah/*Christ became foundational for an *early Jewish sub-group known as Nazarenes, from which "Christianity" ultimately developed as a separate religion. 

Josephus or Flavius Josephus. Jewish general and author in the latter part of the 1st century CE who wrote a massive history ("Antiquities") of the Jews and a detailed treatment of the Jewish revolt against Rome in 66-73 CE (and his involvement in it), among other things.. Jewish general and author in the latter part of the 1st century CE who wrote a massive history ("Antiquities") of the Jews and a detailed treatment of the Jewish revolt against Rome in 66-73 CE (and his involvement in it), among other things.

Judah the Prince (Heb., haNasi). Head of the *rabbinic Jewish community in *Palestine around 200 CE. Credited with publication of the *Mishnah. (Heb., ha Nasi). Head of the *rabbinic Jewish community in *Palestine around 200 CE. Credited with publication of the *Mishnah. 

Judaism, Jew. From the Hebrew name of the *patriarch Judah, whose name also came to designate the tribe and tribal district in which *Jerusalem was located. Thus the inhabitants of Judah and members of the tribe of Judah come to be called "Judahites" or, in short form, "Jews." The religious outlook associated with these people comes to be called "Judaism," and has varying characteristics at different times and places: see especially *early Judaism, *rabbinic Judaism.. From the Hebrew name of the *patriarch Judah, whose name also came to designate the tribe and tribal district in which *Jerusalem was located. Thus the inhabitants of Judah and members of the tribe of Judah come to be called "Judahites" or, in short form, "Jews." The religious outlook associated with these people comes to be called "Judaism," and has varying characteristics at different times and places: see especially *early Judaism, *rabbinic Judaism.

justification. In Christian thought, the state (or judicial act) of being released by God from the guilt of sin. justification. In Christian thought, the state (or judicial act) of being released by God from the guilt of sin. justification. In Christian thought, the state (or judicial act) of being released by God from the guilt of sin. justification. In Christian thought, the state (or judicial act) of being released by God from the guilt of sin.

kaddish. A *classical Jewish prayer (mostly in Aramaic) with *eschatological focus extolling God's majesty and kingdom recited at the conclusion of each major section of each *liturgical service; a long version (called rabbinic kaddish) follows an act of study; also a prayer by mourners during the first year of bereavement and on the anniversary of the death of next-of-kin. Compare the Christian *"Lord's Prayer," Islam's *Fatiha.. A *classical Jewish prayer (mostly in Aramaic) with *eschatological focus extolling God's majesty and kingdom recited at the conclusion of each major section of each *liturgical service; a long version (called rabbinic kaddish) follows an act of study; also a prayer by mourners during the first year of bereavement and on the anniversary of the death of next-of-kin. Compare the Christian *"Lord's Prayer," Islam's *Fatiha.

Karaism, Karaites. Derived from Heb. <h>kara (qara)</>, "scripture." A Middle Eastern *heterodox Jewish group that arose in opposition to *Rabbinism in the 8th century CE, and emphasized the written *scriptures while criticizing the rabbinic use of *"oral law." Karaism, Karaites. Derived from Heb. <h>kara (qara)</>, "scripture." A Middle Eastern *heterodox Jewish group that arose in opposition to *Rabbinism in the 8th century CE, and emphasized the written *scriptures while criticizing the rabbinic use of *"oral law."  

keneset Israel. "Assembly of Israel," or the Jewish people as a whole. See Muslim *umma; compare Christian *church. keneset Israel. "Assembly of Israel," or the Jewish people as a whole. See Muslim *umma; compare Christian *church.

Kingdom of God. The state of the world in which God's will is fulfilled; expected to be brought into being at the end of time when Christ returns.. The state of the world in which God's will is fulfilled; expected to be brought into being at the end of time when Christ returns.

kohen or cohen (pl. <h>kohanim</>; Heb.). An Israelite *priest, generally descended from the tribe of Levi. kohen or cohen (pl. <h>kohanim</>; Heb.). An Israelite *priest, generally descended from the tribe of Levi. 

kosher (Heb., <h>kasher</>). "Proper" or "ritually correct"; <h>kashrut</> refers to ritually correct Jewish dietary practices. Traditional Jewish dietary laws are based on *biblical legislation. Only land animals that chew the cud and have split hooves (sheep, beef; not pigs, camels) are permitted and must be slaughtered in a special way. Further, meat products may not be eaten with milk products or immediately thereafter. Of sea creatures, only those (fish) having fins and scales are permitted. Fowl is considered a meat food and also has to be slaughtered in a special manner. kosher (Heb., <h>kasher</>). "Proper" or "ritually correct"; <h>kashrut</> refers to ritually correct Jewish dietary practices. Traditional Jewish dietary laws are based on *biblical legislation. Only land animals that chew the cud and have split hooves (sheep, beef; not pigs, camels) are permitted and must be slaughtered in a special way. Further, meat products may not be eaten with milk products or immediately thereafter. Of sea creatures, only those (fish) having fins and scales are permitted. Fowl is considered a meat food and also has to be slaughtered in a special manner. 

law. See *torah, *commandments, *oral and written law, *halakah, *Shulhan Aruch, *nomos, *shariah.. See *torah, *commandments, *oral and written law, *halakah, *Shulhan Aruch, *nomos, *shariah.

levarite marriage. From the Latin <l>levir</> for the Hebrew <h>yabam</>, brother-in-law; a *biblical system of marriage in which the levir marries his brother's widow (Deuteronomy 25.5-10).. From the Latin <l>levir</> for the Hebrew <h>yabam</>, brother-in-law; a *biblical system of marriage in which the levir marries his brother's widow (Deuteronomy 25.5-10).

liturgy (adj. liturgical). Rites of public worship, usually institutionalized in *temple, *synagogue, or *church tradition. (adj. liturgical). Rites of public worship, usually institutionalized in *temple, *synagogue, or *church tradition.

logos (Greek, "word," "speech"; divine reason). A Greek term found in various connections in hellenistic thought, including the philosophy of Philo the 1st century CE Alexandrian Jew where it is comparable to the Hebrew <h>hokmah</> ("wisdom"; Greek <g>sofia</>). In the Christian Gospel of John, <g>logos</> is equated with the divine functions of *Jesus Christ (John 1.1-18).Greek, "word," "speech"; divine reason). A Greek term found in various connections in hellenistic thought, including the philosophy of Philo the 1st century CE Alexandrian Jew where it is comparable to the Hebrew <h>hokmah</> ("wisdom"; Greek <g>sofia</>). In the Christian Gospel of John, <g>logos</> is equated with the divine functions of *Jesus Christ (John 1.1-18).

Lord's Prayer (or "the Our Father"). A familiar Christian prayer attributed to *Jesus/Joshua (*NT Matthew 6.9-13) and comparable to the Jewish *kaddish (see also Islam's *Fatiha).). A familiar Christian prayer attributed to *Jesus/Joshua (*NT Matthew 6.9-13) and comparable to the Jewish *kaddish (see also Islam's *Fatiha).

Marranos. An old Spanish term meaning "swine," used to execrate medieval Spanish Jews who converted to Christianity but secretly kept their Judaism. Marranos. An old Spanish term meaning "swine," used to execrate medieval Spanish Jews who converted to Christianity but secretly kept their Judaism. Marranos. An old Spanish term meaning "swine," used to execrate medieval Spanish Jews who converted to Christianity but secretly kept their Judaism. Marranos. An old Spanish term meaning "swine," used to execrate medieval Spanish Jews who converted to Christianity but secretly kept their Judaism.

Masoretes, Masoretic text. Derived from <h>masorah</>, meaning "tradition"; the Masoretes were the rabbis in ninth-century *Palestine who sought to preserve the traditional text of the Bible (hence called the Masoretic text), which is still used in contemporary *synagogues. The Masoretes were scholars who encouraged Bible study and attempted to achieve unlformity by establishing rules for correcting the text in matters of spelling, grammar, and pronunciation. Masoretes, Masoretic text. Derived from <h>masorah</>, meaning "tradition"; the Masoretes were the rabbis in ninth-century *Palestine who sought to preserve the traditional text of the Bible (hence called the Masoretic text), which is still used in contemporary *synagogues. The Masoretes were scholars who encouraged Bible study and attempted to achieve unlformity by establishing rules for correcting the text in matters of spelling, grammar, and pronunciation. Masoretes, Masoretic text. Derived from <h>masorah</>, meaning "tradition"; the Masoretes were the rabbis in ninth-century *Palestine who sought to preserve the traditional text of the Bible (hence called the Masoretic text), which is still used in contemporary *synagogues. The Masoretes were scholars who encouraged Bible study and attempted to achieve unlformity by establishing rules for correcting the text in matters of spelling, grammar, and pronunciation. Masoretes, Masoretic text. Derived from <h>masorah</>, meaning "tradition"; the Masoretes were the rabbis in ninth-century *Palestine who sought to preserve the traditional text of the Bible (hence called the Masoretic text), which is still used in contemporary *synagogues. The Masoretes were scholars who encouraged Bible study and attempted to achieve unlformity by establishing rules for correcting the text in matters of spelling, grammar, and pronunciation.

mass (from Latin for "send"). In *classical (Roman *Catholic) Christianity, the entire set of prayers and ceremonies surrounding the *eucharist. See also *Christmas. mass (from Latin for "send"). In *classical (Roman *Catholic) Christianity, the entire set of prayers and ceremonies surrounding the *eucharist. See also *Christmas. mass (from Latin for "send"). In *classical (Roman *Catholic) Christianity, the entire set of prayers and ceremonies surrounding the *eucharist. See also *Christmas. mass (from Latin for "send"). In *classical (Roman *Catholic) Christianity, the entire set of prayers and ceremonies surrounding the *eucharist. See also *Christmas.

messiah. Lit "anointed one"; Greek <g>christos</>. Ancient *priests and kings (and sometimes *prophets) of Israel were anointed with oil. In early Judaism, the term came to mean a royal descendant of the dynasty of David who would restore the united kingdom of Israel and Judah and usher in an age of peace, justice and plenty; the redeemer figure. The concept developed in many directions over the centuries. The messianic age was believed by some Jews to be a time of perfection of human institutions; others believed it to be a time of radical new beginnings, a new heaven and earth, after divine judgment and destruction. The title came to be applied to *Jesus/Joshua of Nazareth by his followers, who were soon called "Christians" in Greek and Latin usage. Jesus is also "Messiah" in Islam (e.g. *Quran 3.45). messiah. Lit "anointed one"; Greek <g>christos</>. Ancient *priests and kings (and sometimes *prophets) of Israel were anointed with oil. In early Judaism, the term came to mean a royal descendant of the dynasty of David who would restore the united kingdom of Israel and Judah and usher in an age of peace, justice and plenty; the redeemer figure. The concept developed in many directions over the centuries. The messianic age was believed by some Jews to be a time of perfection of human institutions; others believed it to be a time of radical new beginnings, a new heaven and earth, after divine judgment and destruction. The title came to be applied to *Jesus/Joshua of Nazareth by his followers, who were soon called "Christians" in Greek and Latin usage. Jesus is also "Messiah" in Islam (e.g. *Quran 3.45). messiah. Lit "anointed one"; Greek <g>christos</>. Ancient *priests and kings (and sometimes *prophets) of Israel were anointed with oil. In early Judaism, the term came to mean a royal descendant of the dynasty of David who would restore the united kingdom of Israel and Judah and usher in an age of peace, justice and plenty; the redeemer figure. The concept developed in many directions over the centuries. The messianic age was believed by some Jews to be a time of perfection of human institutions; others believed it to be a time of radical new beginnings, a new heaven and earth, after divine judgment and destruction. The title came to be applied to *Jesus/Joshua of Nazareth by his followers, who were soon called "Christians" in Greek and Latin usage. Jesus is also "Messiah" in Islam (e.g. *Quran 3.45). 

midrash (pl. midrashim). From Heb. <h>darash</>, "to inquire," whence it comes to mean "exposition" (of *scripture). Refers to the "commentary" literature developed in classical Judaism that attempts to interpret Jewish scriptures in a thorough manner. Literary Midrash may focus either on halakah, directing the Jew to specific patterns of religious practice, or on (h)aggadah, dealing with theological ideas, ethical teachings, popular philosophy, imaginative exposition, legend, allegory, animal fables, etc. -- that is, whatever is not halakah.midrash (pl. midrashim). From Heb. <h>darash</>, "to inquire," whence it comes to mean "exposition" (of *scripture). Refers to the "commentary" literature developed in classical Judaism that attempts to interpret Jewish scriptures in a thorough manner. Literary Midrash may focus either on halakah, directing the Jew to specific patterns of religious practice, or on (h)aggadah, dealing with theological ideas, ethical teachings, popular philosophy, imaginative exposition, legend, allegory, animal fables, etc. -- that is, whatever is not halakah.

millenarian. From the Latin for "1000" (see also *chiliastic). Having to do with the expected millennium, or thousand-year reign of Christ prophesied in the *NT book of Revelation ("the *Apocalypse"), a time in which the world would be brought to perfection. Millenarian movements often grow up around predictions that this perfect time is about to begin. See *eschatology. millenarian. From the Latin for "1000" (see also *chiliastic). Having to do with the expected millennium, or thousand-year reign of Christ prophesied in the *NT book of Revelation ("the *Apocalypse"), a time in which the world would be brought to perfection. Millenarian movements often grow up around predictions that this perfect time is about to begin. See *eschatology. millenarian. From the Latin for "1000" (see also *chiliastic). Having to do with the expected millennium, or thousand-year reign of Christ prophesied in the *NT book of Revelation ("the *Apocalypse"), a time in which the world would be brought to perfection. Millenarian movements often grow up around predictions that this perfect time is about to begin. See *eschatology. millenarian. From the Latin for "1000" (see also *chiliastic). Having to do with the expected millennium, or thousand-year reign of Christ prophesied in the *NT book of Revelation ("the *Apocalypse"), a time in which the world would be brought to perfection. Millenarian movements often grow up around predictions that this perfect time is about to begin. See *eschatology.

min (pl. <h>minim</>; Heb.). A heretic, sectarian, or schismatic, according to classical Judaism. The term was applied both to Christians, especially Christian Jews, and to people of "gnostic" tendencies, among others. min (pl. <h>minim</>; Heb.). A heretic, sectarian, or schismatic, according to classical Judaism. The term was applied both to Christians, especially Christian Jews, and to people of "gnostic" tendencies, among others. min (pl. <h>minim</>; Heb.). A heretic, sectarian, or schismatic, according to classical Judaism. The term was applied both to Christians, especially Christian Jews, and to people of "gnostic" tendencies, among others. min (pl. <h>minim</>; Heb.). A heretic, sectarian, or schismatic, according to classical Judaism. The term was applied both to Christians, especially Christian Jews, and to people of "gnostic" tendencies, among others.

Mishnah. Lit. "teaching"; the digest of the recommended Jewish *oral halakah as it existed at the end of the 2nd century and was collated, edited, and revised by Rabbi *Judah the Prince. The code is divided into six major units and sixty-three minor ones. The work is the authoritative legal tradition of the early *sages and is the basis of the legal discussions of the *Talmud. See also *pilpul.Mishnah. Lit. "teaching"; the digest of the recommended Jewish *oral halakah as it existed at the end of the 2nd century and was collated, edited, and revised by Rabbi *Judah the Prince. The code is divided into six major units and sixty-three minor ones. The work is the authoritative legal tradition of the early *sages and is the basis of the legal discussions of the *Talmud. See also *pilpul.

mitzvah (pl. <h>mitzvot</>; Heb., "commandment, obligation"). A ritual or ethical duty or act of obedience to God's will. See also commandments. mitzvah (pl. <h>mitzvot</>; Heb., "commandment, obligation"). A ritual or ethical duty or act of obedience to God's will. See also commandments. mitzvah (pl. <h>mitzvot</>; Heb., "commandment, obligation"). A ritual or ethical duty or act of obedience to God's will. See also commandments. mitzvah (pl. <h>mitzvot</>; Heb., "commandment, obligation"). A ritual or ethical duty or act of obedience to God's will. See also commandments.

monastery (adj. monastic). Especially in Christianity, an isolated institution in which *monks (or *nuns) gather and often live together, in a disciplined quest of religious fulfilment. monastery (adj. monastic). Especially in Christianity, an isolated institution in which *monks (or *nuns) gather and often live together, in a disciplined quest of religious fulfilment. monastery (adj. monastic). Especially in Christianity, an isolated institution in which *monks (or *nuns) gather and often live together, in a disciplined quest of religious fulfilment. (adj. monastic). Especially in Christianity, an isolated institution in which *monks (or *nuns) gather and often live together, in a disciplined quest of religious fulfillment.

monasticism. The way of life or tradition of Christian *monks or *nuns living in *monasteries.

monk (from Greek, "a loner, a solitary person"). Especially in Christianity, persons who pledged their existence to what they considered to be God's highest purposes, to be pursued in relative isolation from otherwise usual human pursuits (e.g. in a *monastery, practicing *celibacy and religious discipline).monk (from Greek, "a loner, a solitary person"). Especially in Christianity, persons who pledged their existence to what they considered to be God's highest purposes, to be pursued in relative isolation from otherwise usual human pursuits (e.g. in a *monastery, practicing *celibacy and religious discipline).

Moses. The great *biblical personality (c. thirteenth century BCE) who is credited with leading the people of Israel out of Egyptian bondage and teaching them the divine laws at Sinai. He is also described as first of the Jewish *prophets. Throughout Jewish history he is the exalted man of faith and leadership without peer.Moses. The great *biblical personality (c. thirteenth century BCE) who is credited with leading the people of Israel out of Egyptian bondage and teaching them the divine laws at Sinai. He is also described as first of the Jewish *prophets. Throughout Jewish history he is the exalted man of faith and leadership without peer.

mystic, mysticism (adj. mystical; from Greek for "initiant" into religious "mysteries"). A vaguely used term to indicate certain types of behavior or perspective that goes beyond the rational in the quest of what is considered to be the ultimate in religious experience (often described as union or direct communion with deity). See also *kabalah, *sufi/sufism. mystic, mysticism (adj. mystical; from Greek for "initiant" into religious "mysteries"). A vaguely used term to indicate certain types of behavior or perspective that goes beyond the rational in the quest of what is considered to be the ultimate in religious experience (often described as union or direct communion with deity). See also *kabalah, *sufi/sufism.

New Testament (= NT). The collection of Christian *canonical writings that together with "the *Old Testament" (see also *Apocrypha) constitute the Christian *Bible. New Testament (= NT). The collection of Christian *canonical writings that together with "the *Old Testament" (see also *Apocrypha) constitute the Christian *Bible. New Testament (= NT). The collection of Christian *canonical writings that together with "the *Old Testament" (see also *Apocrypha) constitute the Christian *Bible. New Testament (= NT). The collection of Christian *canonical writings that together with "the *Old Testament" (see also *Apocrypha) constitute the Christian *Bible.

nomos (pl. <g>nomoi</>). A Greek term meaning "law" that comes to be used in similar senses to *"torah", referring to the *Pentateuch, all of Jewish *scripture, and even proto-rabbinic *halakah; an expert in <g>nomos</> is termed a <g>nomikos</>. nomos (pl. <g>nomoi</>). A Greek term meaning "law" that comes to be used in similar senses to *"torah", referring to the *Pentateuch, all of Jewish *scripture, and even proto-rabbinic *halakah; an expert in <g>nomos</> is termed a <g>nomikos</>. nomos (pl. <g>nomoi</>). A Greek term meaning "law" that comes to be used in similar senses to *"torah", referring to the *Pentateuch, all of Jewish *scripture, and even proto-rabbinic *halakah; an expert in <g>nomos</> is termed a <g>nomikos</>. nomos (pl. <g>nomoi</>). A Greek term meaning "law" that comes to be used in similar senses to *"torah", referring to the *Pentateuch, all of Jewish *scripture, and even proto-rabbinic *halakah; an expert in <g>nomos</> is termed a <g>nomikos</>.

Old Testament (= OT). The name traditionally given by Christians to the Jewish *biblical writings that together with "the *New Testament" constitute the Christian *Bible. For most *Protestant Christians, OT is identical to the classical Jewish Bible, while for *classical (Roman *Catholic, Greek *Orthodox, etc.) Christianity, OT also includes "the *Apocrypha." Old Testament (= OT). The name traditionally given by Christians to the Jewish *biblical writings that together with "the *New Testament" constitute the Christian *Bible. For most *Protestant Christians, OT is identical to the classical Jewish Bible, while for *classical (Roman *Catholic, Greek *Orthodox, etc.) Christianity, OT also includes "the *Apocrypha." Old Testament (= OT). The name traditionally given by Christians to the Jewish *biblical writings that together with "the *New Testament" constitute the Christian *Bible. For most *Protestant Christians, OT is identical to the classical Jewish Bible, while for *classical (Roman *Catholic, Greek *Orthodox, etc.) Christianity, OT also includes "the *Apocrypha." Old Testament (= OT). The name traditionally given by Christians to the Jewish *biblical writings that together with "the *New Testament" constitute the Christian *Bible. For most *Protestant Christians, OT is identical to the classical Jewish Bible, while for *classical (Roman *Catholic, Greek *Orthodox, etc.) Christianity, OT also includes "the *Apocrypha."

omer. Lit. "sheaf." In Judaism, the sheaf of grain offering brought to the temple during *Passover, on Nisan 16; thus also the name of the seven-week period between Passover/Pesah and *Shabuot also known as the Sephirah. See also *calendar.omer. Lit. "sheaf." In Judaism, the sheaf of grain offering brought to the temple during *Passover, on Nisan 16; thus also the name of the seven-week period between Passover/Pesah and *Shabuot also known as the Sephirah. See also *calendar.

oral law. In traditional Jewish *pharisaic/*rabbinic thought, God reveals instructions for living through both the written *scriptures and through a parallel process of orally transmitted traditions. Critics of this approach within Judaism include *Sadducees and *Karaites.oral law. In traditional Jewish *pharisaic/*rabbinic thought, God reveals instructions for living through both the written *scriptures and through a parallel process of orally transmitted traditions. Critics of this approach within Judaism include *Sadducees and *Karaites.

ordination. Especially in Christianity, the ceremony of investing a person with ministerial or *priestly office. ordination. Especially in Christianity, the ceremony of investing a person with ministerial or *priestly office. ordination. Especially in Christianity, the ceremony of investing a person with ministerial or *priestly office. ordination. Especially in Christianity, the ceremony of investing a person with ministerial or *priestly office.

original sin. In classical Christian thought, the fundamental state of sinfulness and guilt, inherited from the first man Adam, that infects all of humanity but can be removed through depending on Christ.original sin. In classical Christian thought, the fundamental state of sinfulness and guilt, inherited from the first man Adam, that infects all of humanity but can be removed through depending on Christ.

orthodox. From the Greek for "correct opinion/outlook," as opposed to *heterodox or heretical. The judgment that a position is "orthodox" depends on what are accepted as the operative "rules" or authorities at the time. Over the course of history, the term "orthodox" has come to denote the dominant surviving forms that have proved themselves to be "traditional" or *"classical" or "mainstream" (e.g. *rabbinic Judaism; the Roman *Catholic and Greek *Orthodox Christian *churches; *sunni Islam), although new, relative "orthodoxies" constantly emerge (and often disappear).orthodox. From the Greek for "correct opinion/outlook," as opposed to *heterodox or heretical. The judgment that a position is "orthodox" depends on what are accepted as the operative "rules" or authorities at the time. Over the course of history, the term "orthodox" has come to denote the dominant surviving forms that have proved themselves to be "traditional" or *"classical" or "mainstream" (e.g. *rabbinic Judaism; the Roman *Catholic and Greek *Orthodox Christian *churches; *sunni Islam), although new, relative "orthodoxies" constantly emerge (and often disappear).

Palestine (Greek form representing "Philistines," for the seacoast population encountered by early geographers). An ancient designation for the area between Syria (to the north) and Egypt (to the south), between the Mediterranean Sea and the River Jordan; roughly, modern Israel. Palestine (Greek form representing "Philistines," for the seacoast population encountered by early geographers). An ancient designation for the area between Syria (to the north) and Egypt (to the south), between the Mediterranean Sea and the River Jordan; roughly, modern Israel. Palestine (Greek form representing "Philistines," for the seacoast population encountered by early geographers). An ancient designation for the area between Syria (to the north) and Egypt (to the south), between the Mediterranean Sea and the River Jordan; roughly, modern Israel. Palestine (Greek form representing "Philistines," for the seacoast population encountered by early geographers). An ancient designation for the area between Syria (to the north) and Egypt (to the south), between the Mediterranean Sea and the River Jordan; roughly, modern Israel.

papal. See *pope.papal. See *pope.

Passover (Hebrew <h>pesah</>). The major Jewish spring holiday (with agricultural aspects) also known as <h>hag hamatzot</> (festival of unleavened bread) commemorating the *Exodus or deliverance of the Hebrew people from Egypt (see Exodus 12-13). The festival lasts eight days, during which Jews refrain from eating all leavened foods and products. A special ritual meal (called the *Seder) is prepared, and a traditional narrative (called the *Haggadah), supplemented by hymns and songs, marks the event. See *calendar; also Christian *Easter. Passover (Hebrew <h>pesah</>). The major Jewish spring holiday (with agricultural aspects) also known as <h>hag hamatzot</> (festival of unleavened bread) commemorating the *Exodus or deliverance of the Hebrew people from Egypt (see Exodus 12-13). The festival lasts eight days, during which Jews refrain from eating all leavened foods and products. A special ritual meal (called the *Seder) is prepared, and a traditional narrative (called the *Haggadah), supplemented by hymns and songs, marks the event. See *calendar; also Christian *Easter. Passover (Hebrew <h>pesah</>). The major Jewish spring holiday (with agricultural aspects) also known as <h>hag hamatzot</> (festival of unleavened bread) commemorating the *Exodus or deliverance of the Hebrew people from Egypt (see Exodus 12-13). The festival lasts eight days, during which Jews refrain from eating all leavened foods and products. A special ritual meal (called the *Seder) is prepared, and a traditional narrative (called the *Haggadah), supplemented by hymns and songs, marks the event. See *calendar; also Christian *Easter. Passover (Hebrew <h>pesah</>). The major Jewish spring holiday (with agricultural aspects) also known as <h>hag hamatzot</> (festival of unleavened bread) commemorating the *Exodus or deliverance of the Hebrew people from Egypt (see Exodus 12-13). The festival lasts eight days, during which Jews refrain from eating all leavened foods and products. A special ritual meal (called the *Seder) is prepared, and a traditional narrative (called the *Haggadah), supplemented by hymns and songs, marks the event. See *calendar; also Christian *Easter.

patriarchs. 1. A common designation for the early founding figures of ancient Semitic tradition (before *Moses) such as *Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and the twelve tribal figureheads of Israel (Judah, Benjamin, etc.). 2. One of the bishops of the four major early Christian centers -- Rome, Jerusalem, Antioch, or Alexandria, with Constantinople later added as a fifth. After the break with Rome (see *great schism), the term may refer to the head of any of the national divisions of the Eastern *church. patriarchs. 1. A common designation for the early founding figures of ancient Semitic tradition (before *Moses) such as *Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and the twelve tribal figureheads of Israel (Judah, Benjamin, etc.). 2. One of the bishops of the four major early Christian centers -- Rome, Jerusalem, Antioch, or Alexandria, with Constantinople later added as a fifth. After the break with Rome (see *great schism), the term may refer to the head of any of the national divisions of the Eastern *church. patriarchs. 1. A common designation for the early founding figures of ancient Semitic tradition (before *Moses) such as *Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and the twelve tribal figureheads of Israel (Judah, Benjamin, etc.). 2. One of the bishops of the four major early Christian centers -- Rome, Jerusalem, Antioch, or Alexandria, with Constantinople later added as a fifth. After the break with Rome (see *great schism), the term may refer to the head of any of the national divisions of the Eastern *church. patriarchs. 1. A common designation for the early founding figures of ancient Semitic tradition (before *Moses) such as *Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and the twelve tribal figureheads of Israel (Judah, Benjamin, etc.). 2. One of the bishops of the four major early Christian centers -- Rome, Jerusalem, Antioch, or Alexandria, with Constantinople later added as a fifth. After the break with Rome (see *great schism), the term may refer to the head of any of the national divisions of the Eastern *church.

penance. The *sacramental rite, in Christian Roman *Catholicism, consisting of repentance, confession to a *priest, payment of the temporal penalty for one's sins, and forgiveness.penance. The *sacramental rite, in Christian Roman *Catholicism, consisting of repentance, confession to a *priest, payment of the temporal penalty for one's sins, and forgiveness.

Pentateuch (from Greek for "five books/scrolls"). The five books attributed to *Moses: Genesis, *Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy; known in Jewish tradition as <h>Torat Mosheh</> (the teaching of Moses), or simply the *Torah. Pentateuch (from Greek for "five books/scrolls"). The five books attributed to *Moses: Genesis, *Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy; known in Jewish tradition as <h>Torat Mosheh</> (the teaching of Moses), or simply the *Torah. Pentateuch (from Greek for "five books/scrolls"). The five books attributed to *Moses: Genesis, *Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy; known in Jewish tradition as <h>Torat Mosheh</> (the teaching of Moses), or simply the *Torah. Pentateuch (from Greek for "five books/scrolls"). The five books attributed to *Moses: Genesis, *Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy; known in Jewish tradition as <h>Torat Mosheh</> (the teaching of Moses), or simply the *Torah.

Pentecost (Greek for "50th [day]"). See *Shabuot/Shavuot. Pentecost (Greek for "50th [day]"). See *Shabuot/Shavuot. Pentecost (Greek for "50th [day]"). See *Shabuot/Shavuot. Pentecost (Greek for "50th [day]"). See *Shabuot/Shavuot.

Perushim; see *Pharisees.Perushim; see *Pharisees.

Pesach; see *Passover.Pesach; see *Passover.

Pharisees (Hebrew <h>perushim</>, lit. "separatists" (?); adj. pharisaic). The name given to a group or movement in *early Judaism, the origin and nature of which is unclear. Many scholars identify them with the later *sages and *rabbis who taught the *oral and written law; Sigal and some others see them as a complex of pietistic and zealous separatists, distinct from the *proto- rabbis. According to *Josephus (see also *NT), the Pharisees believed in the immortality of souls and resurrection of the dead, in a balance between *predestination and free will, in angels as active divine agents, and in authoritative *oral law. In the early Christian materials, Pharisees are often depicted as leading opponents of *Jesus/Joshua and his followers, and are often linked with "scribes" but distinguished from the *Sadducees. Pharisees (Hebrew <h>perushim</>, lit. "separatists" (?); adj. pharisaic). The name given to a group or movement in *early Judaism, the origin and nature of which is unclear. Many scholars identify them with the later *sages and *rabbis who taught the *oral and written law; Sigal and some others see them as a complex of pietistic and zealous separatists, distinct from the *proto- rabbis. According to *Josephus (see also *NT), the Pharisees believed in the immortality of souls and resurrection of the dead, in a balance between *predestination and free will, in angels as active divine agents, and in authoritative *oral law. In the early Christian materials, Pharisees are often depicted as leading opponents of *Jesus/Joshua and his followers, and are often linked with "scribes" but distinguished from the *Sadducees. Pharisees (Hebrew <h>perushim</>, lit. "separatists" (?); adj. pharisaic). The name given to a group or movement in *early Judaism, the origin and nature of which is unclear. Many scholars identify them with the later *sages and *rabbis who taught the *oral and written law; Sigal and some others see them as a complex of pietistic and zealous separatists, distinct from the *proto- rabbis. According to *Josephus (see also *NT), the Pharisees believed in the immortality of souls and resurrection of the dead, in a balance between *predestination and free will, in angels as active divine agents, and in authoritative *oral law. In the early Christian materials, Pharisees are often depicted as leading opponents of *Jesus/Joshua and his followers, and are often linked with "scribes" but distinguished from the *Sadducees. Pharisees (Hebrew <h>perushim</>, lit. "separatists" (?); adj. pharisaic). The name given to a group or movement in *early Judaism, the origin and nature of which is unclear. Many scholars identify them with the later *sages and *rabbis who taught the *oral and written law; Sigal and some others see them as a complex of pietistic and zealous separatists, distinct from the *proto- rabbis. According to *Josephus (see also *NT), the Pharisees believed in the immortality of souls and resurrection of the dead, in a balance between *predestination and free will, in angels as active divine agents, and in authoritative *oral law. In the early Christian materials, Pharisees are often depicted as leading opponents of *Jesus/Joshua and his followers, and are often linked with "scribes" but distinguished from the *Sadducees.

Philo Judeus (= "the Jew") of Alexandria. Greek speaking (and writing) prolific Jewish author in the 1st century CE. Provides extensive evidence for Jewish thought in the Greco-Roman ("hellenistic") world outside of *Palestine. Philo Judeus (= "the Jew") of Alexandria. Greek speaking (and writing) prolific Jewish author in the 1st century CE. Provides extensive evidence for Jewish thought in the Greco-Roman ("hellenistic") world outside of *Palestine. Philo Judeus (= "the Jew") of Alexandria. Greek speaking (and writing) prolific Jewish author in the 1st century CE. Provides extensive evidence for Jewish thought in the Greco-Roman ("hellenistic") world outside of *Palestine. Philo Judeus (= "the Jew") of Alexandria. Greek speaking (and writing) prolific Jewish author in the 1st century CE. Provides extensive evidence for Jewish thought in the Greco-Roman ("hellenistic") world outside of *Palestine.

pope (adj. papal; from the Latin for "father"). In Christian history, a mode of addressing important *church leaders, and especially the *bishop of Rome; thence it became a technical term for that bishop, as leader of the entire *Catholic (universal) *church. pope (adj. papal; from the Latin for "father"). In Christian history, a mode of addressing important *church leaders, and especially the *bishop of Rome; thence it became a technical term for that bishop, as leader of the entire *Catholic (universal) *church. pope (adj. papal; from the Latin for "father"). In Christian history, a mode of addressing important *church leaders, and especially the *bishop of Rome; thence it became a technical term for that bishop, as leader of the entire *Catholic (universal) *church. pope (adj. papal; from the Latin for "father"). In Christian history, a mode of addressing important *church leaders, and especially the *bishop of Rome; thence it became a technical term for that bishop, as leader of the entire *Catholic (universal) *church.

predestination. The idea that one's eternal destiny is determined beforehand, from the beginning of time, by the will and plan of the deity.predestination. The idea that one's eternal destiny is determined beforehand, from the beginning of time, by the will and plan of the deity.

priest (see also *kohen). A functionary usually associated, in antiquity, with *temples and their rites (including sacrifice). In *classical Christianity, the office of priest was developed (see *ordination, *clergy) in connection with celebration of the *mass and *eucharist, and with *celibacy as an important qualification especially in Roman *Catholicism. priest (see also *kohen). A functionary usually associated, in antiquity, with *temples and their rites (including sacrifice). In *classical Christianity, the office of priest was developed (see *ordination, *clergy) in connection with celebration of the *mass and *eucharist, and with *celibacy as an important qualification especially in Roman *Catholicism. priest (see also *kohen). A functionary usually associated, in antiquity, with *temples and their rites (including sacrifice). In *classical Christianity, the office of priest was developed (see *ordination, *clergy) in connection with celebration of the *mass and *eucharist, and with *celibacy as an important qualification especially in Roman *Catholicism. priest (see also *kohen). A functionary usually associated, in antiquity, with *temples and their rites (including sacrifice). In *classical Christianity, the office of priest was developed (see *ordination, *clergy) in connection with celebration of the *mass and *eucharist, and with *celibacy as an important qualification especially in Roman *Catholicism.

prophet (from Greek, to "speak for" or "speak forth"). Name given to accepted spokespersons of God (or their opposites, "false prophets"). Became a designation for a section of the Jewish *scriptures; see *nabi, *rasul, *TaNaK. prophet (from Greek, to "speak for" or "speak forth"). Name given to accepted spokespersons of God (or their opposites, "false prophets"). Became a designation for a section of the Jewish *scriptures; see *nabi, *rasul, *TaNaK. prophet (from Greek, to "speak for" or "speak forth"). Name given to accepted spokespersons of God (or their opposites, "false prophets"). Became a designation for a section of the Jewish *scriptures; see *nabi, *rasul, *TaNaK. prophet (from Greek, to "speak for" or "speak forth"). Name given to accepted spokespersons of God (or their opposites, "false prophets"). Became a designation for a section of the Jewish *scriptures; see *nabi, *rasul, *TaNaK.

proto-Judaism = *early Judaism. proto-Judaism = *early Judaism. proto-Judaism = *early Judaism. proto-Judaism = *early Judaism.

proto-rabbis. Pre-70 CE *sages who set the foundations of post-70 CE rabbinic *Judaism before the ordination of rabbis became formalized in its classical sense. proto-rabbis. Pre-70 CE *sages who set the foundations of post-70 CE rabbinic *Judaism before the ordination of rabbis became formalized in its classical sense. proto-rabbis. Pre-70 CE *sages who set the foundations of post-70 CE rabbinic *Judaism before the ordination of rabbis became formalized in its classical sense. proto-rabbis. Pre-70 CE *sages who set the foundations of post-70 CE rabbinic *Judaism before the ordination of rabbis became formalized in its classical sense.

pseudepigrapha (adj. pseudepigraphical), from Greek <g>pseudos</>, "deceit, untruth," and <g>epigraphe</>, "writing, inscription." A name given to a number of *intertestamental *apocryphal writings that are implausibly attributed to an ancient worthy such as Adam/Eve, Enoch, Abraham, *Moses, Isaiah, Ezra, etc. pseudepigrapha (adj. pseudepigraphical), from Greek <g>pseudos</>, "deceit, untruth," and <g>epigraphe</>, "writing, inscription." A name given to a number of *intertestamental *apocryphal writings that are implausibly attributed to an ancient worthy such as Adam/Eve, Enoch, Abraham, *Moses, Isaiah, Ezra, etc. pseudepigrapha (adj. pseudepigraphical), from Greek <g>pseudos</>, "deceit, untruth," and <g>epigraphe</>, "writing, inscription." A name given to a number of *intertestamental *apocryphal writings that are implausibly attributed to an ancient worthy such as Adam/Eve, Enoch, Abraham, *Moses, Isaiah, Ezra, etc. pseudepigrapha (adj. pseudepigraphical), from Greek <g>pseudos</>, "deceit, untruth," and <g>epigraphe</>, "writing, inscription." A name given to a number of *intertestamental *apocryphal writings that are implausibly attributed to an ancient worthy such as Adam/Eve, Enoch, Abraham, *Moses, Isaiah, Ezra, etc.

purgatory. In classical (Roman *Catholic) Christian thought, an intermediate state after death where one can finish satisfying the temporal punishments for one's sins and purify one's soul before being admitted to heaven. purgatory. In classical (Roman *Catholic) Christian thought, an intermediate state after death where one can finish satisfying the temporal punishments for one's sins and purify one's soul before being admitted to heaven.

Qumran or Khirbet Qumran. The site near the northwest corner of the Dead Sea in Modern Israel (west bank) where the main bulk of the Jewish *? Dead Sea Scrolls? were discovered around 1946. The Qumran comminity that apparently produced the scrolls seems to have flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE, and is usuallyu identified with the Jewish *Essenes, or a group like them.Qumran or Khirbet Qumran. The site near the northwest corner of the Dead Sea in Modern Israel (west bank) where the main bulk of the Jewish *? Dead Sea Scrolls? were discovered around 1946. The Qumran comminity that apparently produced the scrolls seems to have flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE, and is usuallyu identified with the Jewish *Essenes, or a group like them.

rabbi (adj. rabbinic). Hebrew, "my master," an authorized teacher of the *classical Jewish tradition (see *oral law) after the fall of the second *Temple in 70 CE. The role of the rabbi has changed considerably throughout the centuries. Traditionally, rabbis serve as the legal and spiritual guides of their congregations and communities. The title is conferred after considerable study of traditional Jewish sources. This conferral and its responsibilities is central to the chain of tradition in Judaism. rabbi (adj. rabbinic). Hebrew, "my master," an authorized teacher of the *classical Jewish tradition (see *oral law) after the fall of the second *Temple in 70 CE. The role of the rabbi has changed considerably throughout the centuries. Traditionally, rabbis serve as the legal and spiritual guides of their congregations and communities. The title is conferred after considerable study of traditional Jewish sources. This conferral and its responsibilities is central to the chain of tradition in Judaism. rabbi (adj. rabbinic). Hebrew, "my master," an authorized teacher of the *classical Jewish tradition (see *oral law) after the fall of the second *Temple in 70 CE. The role of the rabbi has changed considerably throughout the centuries. Traditionally, rabbis serve as the legal and spiritual guides of their congregations and communities. The title is conferred after considerable study of traditional Jewish sources. This conferral and its responsibilities is central to the chain of tradition in Judaism. rabbi (adj. rabbinic). Hebrew, "my master," an authorized teacher of the *classical Jewish tradition (see *oral law) after the fall of the second *Temple in 70 CE. The role of the rabbi has changed considerably throughout the centuries. Traditionally, rabbis serve as the legal and spiritual guides of their congregations and communities. The title is conferred after considerable study of traditional Jewish sources. This conferral and its responsibilities is central to the chain of tradition in Judaism.

redactor. An editor, especially with reference to ancient books such as the Jewish and Christian *scriptures.redactor. An editor, especially with reference to ancient books such as the Jewish and Christian *scriptures.

relics. In popular Christian religiousity, objects or parts of the body (e.g., clothing, teeth, bones) left behind after the decay of the corpse, which are venerated for saints of the Roman *Catholic and Eastern *churches.relics. In popular Christian religiousity, objects or parts of the body (e.g., clothing, teeth, bones) left behind after the decay of the corpse, which are venerated for saints of the Roman *Catholic and Eastern *churches.

resurrection. The idea that dead persons who have found favor with the deity will ultimately (in *eschatological times) be raised from the dead, with restored bodily form.resurrection. The idea that dead persons who have found favor with the deity will ultimately (in *eschatological times) be raised from the dead, with restored bodily form.

revivals. Events of spiritual awakening or high religious involvement; specifically in modern Christianity, commonly in *evangelical circles, special meetings to encourage such awakening or interest.revivals. Events of spiritual awakening or high religious involvement; specifically in modern Christianity, commonly in *evangelical circles, special meetings to encourage such awakening or interest.

Sabbath. The seventh day of the week (Heb. <h>shabbat</>), recalling the completion of the creation and the *Exodus from Egypt. It is a day symbolic of new beginnings and one dedicated to God, a most holy day of rest. The *commandment of rest is found in the *Bible and has been elaborated by the *rabbis. It is a special duty to study *Torah on the Sabbath and to be joyful. Sabbaths near major festivals (see *calendar) are known by special names.Sabbath. The seventh day of the week (Heb. <h>shabbat</>), recalling the completion of the creation and the *Exodus from Egypt. It is a day symbolic of new beginnings and one dedicated to God, a most holy day of rest. The *commandment of rest is found in the *Bible and has been elaborated by the *rabbis. It is a special duty to study *Torah on the Sabbath and to be joyful. Sabbaths near major festivals (see *calendar) are known by special names.

sacrament. Especially in *classical Christianity, a formal religious rite (e.g. *baptism, *eucharist) regarded as sacred for its perfect ability to convey divine blessing; in some traditions (especially *Protestant), it is regarded as not effective in itself but as a sign or symbol of spiritual reality or truth.sacrament. Especially in *classical Christianity, a formal religious rite (e.g. *baptism, *eucharist) regarded as sacred for its perfect ability to convey divine blessing; in some traditions (especially *Protestant), it is regarded as not effective in itself but as a sign or symbol of spiritual reality or truth.

Sadducees. An *early Jewish sub-group whose origins and ideas are uncertain. It probably arose early in the 2nd century BCE and ceased to exist when the *Temple was destroyed in 70 CE. Sadducees supported *priestly authority and rejected traditions not directly grounded in the *Pentateuch, such as the concept of life after death. They are often depicted as in conflict with the *Pharisees. Sadducees. An *early Jewish sub-group whose origins and ideas are uncertain. It probably arose early in the 2nd century BCE and ceased to exist when the *Temple was destroyed in 70 CE. Sadducees supported *priestly authority and rejected traditions not directly grounded in the *Pentateuch, such as the concept of life after death. They are often depicted as in conflict with the *Pharisees. Sadducees. An *early Jewish sub-group whose origins and ideas are uncertain. It probably arose early in the 2nd century BCE and ceased to exist when the *Temple was destroyed in 70 CE. Sadducees supported *priestly authority and rejected traditions not directly grounded in the *Pentateuch, such as the concept of life after death. They are often depicted as in conflict with the *Pharisees. Sadducees. An *early Jewish sub-group whose origins and ideas are uncertain. It probably arose early in the 2nd century BCE and ceased to exist when the *Temple was destroyed in 70 CE. Sadducees supported *priestly authority and rejected traditions not directly grounded in the *Pentateuch, such as the concept of life after death. They are often depicted as in conflict with the *Pharisees.

sage. For Judaism, see *hakam.sage. For Judaism, see *hakam.

salvation. In Christian thought, most generally, liberation from the power and effects of sin; often refers to an experience or series of experiences leading to a sense of liberation; sometimes refers to the expected liberation of a Christian after death.salvation. In Christian thought, most generally, liberation from the power and effects of sin; often refers to an experience or series of experiences leading to a sense of liberation; sometimes refers to the expected liberation of a Christian after death.

Samaritans. Another of the numerous sub-groups in *early Judaism (see also *Sadducees, *Pharisees, *Essenes) and residents of the district of Samaria north of Jerusalem and Judah in what is now Israel. They are said to have recognized only the *Pentateuch as *scripture and Mt. Gerizim as the sacred center rather than Jerusalem. There was ongoing hostility between Samaritans and Judahites. Samaritan communities exist to the present.Samaritans. Another of the numerous sub-groups in *early Judaism (see also *Sadducees, *Pharisees, *Essenes) and residents of the district of Samaria north of Jerusalem and Judah in what is now Israel. They are said to have recognized only the *Pentateuch as *scripture and Mt. Gerizim as the sacred center rather than Jerusalem. There was ongoing hostility between Samaritans and Judahites. Samaritan communities exist to the present.

Sanhedrin (from Greek for "assembly" [of persons seated together]; see also *synagogue, *church). A legislative and judicial body from the period of *early Judaism and into *rabbinic times. Traditionally composed of 71 members. Sanhedrin (from Greek for "assembly" [of persons seated together]; see also *synagogue, *church). A legislative and judicial body from the period of *early Judaism and into *rabbinic times. Traditionally composed of 71 members. Sanhedrin (from Greek for "assembly" [of persons seated together]; see also *synagogue, *church). A legislative and judicial body from the period of *early Judaism and into *rabbinic times. Traditionally composed of 71 members. Sanhedrin (from Greek for "assembly" [of persons seated together]; see also *synagogue, *church). A legislative and judicial body from the period of *early Judaism and into *rabbinic times. Traditionally composed of 71 members.

seder (Heb. for "order"). The traditional evening service and opening of the celebration of *Passover, which includes special food symbols and narratives. The order of the service is highly regulated, and the traditional narrative is known as the Passover *Haggadah. seder (Heb. for "order"). The traditional evening service and opening of the celebration of *Passover, which includes special food symbols and narratives. The order of the service is highly regulated, and the traditional narrative is known as the Passover *Haggadah. seder (Heb. for "order"). The traditional evening service and opening of the celebration of *Passover, which includes special food symbols and narratives. The order of the service is highly regulated, and the traditional narrative is known as the Passover *Haggadah. seder (Heb. for "order"). The traditional evening service and opening of the celebration of *Passover, which includes special food symbols and narratives. The order of the service is highly regulated, and the traditional narrative is known as the Passover *Haggadah.

Septuagint. Strictly speaking, refers to the ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew *Pentateuch, probably made during the reign of Ptolemy II, Greek ruler of Egypt around 250 BCE. Subsequently, Greek translations of other portions of the Jewish scriptures came to be added to the corpus, and the term Septuagint was applied to the entire collection. Such collections served as the *"scriptures" for Greek speaking Jews and Christians. . Strictly speaking, refers to the ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew *Pentateuch, probably made during the reign of Ptolemy II, Greek ruler of Egypt around 250 BCE. Subsequently, Greek translations of other portions of the Jewish scriptures came to be added to the corpus, and the term Septuagint was applied to the entire collection. Such collections served as the *"scriptures" for Greek speaking Jews and Christians. 

shabbat (Heb., "rest"). The *Sabbath. shabbat (Heb., "rest"). The *Sabbath. shabbat (Heb., "rest"). The *Sabbath. shabbat (Heb., "rest"). The *Sabbath.

Shavuot/Shabuot (*Pentecost; Heb., "weeks"). Observed 50 days from the day the first sheaf of grain was offered to the *priests at *Passover; also known as Festival of First Fruits. See *calendar."). Observed 50 days from the day the first sheaf of grain was offered to the *priests at *Passover; also known as Festival of First Fruits. See *calendar.

Shema (Heb. "hear"). Title of the fundamental, monotheistic statement of Judaism, found in Deut. 6:4 ("Hear, O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One"). This statement avers the unity of God, and is recited daily in the *liturgy (along with Deut. 6:5-9, 11.13-21; Num. 15.37-41 and other passages), and customarily before sleep at night. This proclamation also climaxes special liturgies (like *Yom Kippur), and is central to the confessional before death and the ritual of martyrdom. The Shema is inscribed on the *mezuzah and the *tefillin. In public services, it is recited in unison. Shema (Heb. "hear"). Title of the fundamental, monotheistic statement of Judaism, found in Deut. 6:4 ("Hear, O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One"). This statement avers the unity of God, and is recited daily in the *liturgy (along with Deut. 6:5-9, 11.13-21; Num. 15.37-41 and other passages), and customarily before sleep at night. This proclamation also climaxes special liturgies (like *Yom Kippur), and is central to the confessional before death and the ritual of martyrdom. The Shema is inscribed on the *mezuzah and the *tefillin. In public services, it is recited in unison. 

sin. Transgression or offense against God's laws or wishes; more generally in Christian belief, a continuing state of estrangement from God. See also *original sin. sin. Transgression or offense against God's laws or wishes; more generally in Christian belief, a continuing state of estrangement from God. See also *original sin. sin. Transgression or offense against God's laws or wishes; more generally in Christian belief, a continuing state of estrangement from God. See also *original sin. sin. Transgression or offense against God's laws or wishes; more generally in Christian belief, a continuing state of estrangement from God. See also *original sin.

synagogue (Greek for "gathering"). The central insitution of Jewish communal worship and study since antiquity (see also *bet midrash), and by extension, a term used for the place of gathering. The structure of such buildings has changed, though in all cases the ark containing the *Torah scrolls faces the ancient *Temple site in Jerusalem. synagogue (Greek for "gathering"). The central insitution of Jewish communal worship and study since antiquity (see also *bet midrash), and by extension, a term used for the place of gathering. The structure of such buildings has changed, though in all cases the ark containing the *Torah scrolls faces the ancient *Temple site in Jerusalem. 

syncretism (Greek for "draw together, combine"). Synthesis of variegated religious beliefs derived from more than one religion. syncretism (Greek for "draw together, combine"). Synthesis of variegated religious beliefs derived from more than one religion.  

Talmud (Heb. "study" or "learning"). Rabbinic Judaism produced two Talmuds: the one known as "Babylonian" is the most famous in the western world, and was completed around the fifth centuty CE; the other, known as the "Palestinian" or "Jerusalem" Talmud, was edited perhaps in the early fourth century CE. Both have as their common core the *Mishnah collection of the *tannaim, to which are added commentary and discussion (*gemara) by the *amoraim (teachers) of the respective locales. Gemara thus has also become a colloquial, generic term for the Talmud and its study. tanna (adj. tannaitic, pl. tannaim). A Jewish *sage from the period of Hillel (around the turn of the era) to the compilation of the Mishnah (200 CE), distinguished from later *amoraim. Tannaim were primarily scholars and teachers. The *Mishnah, *Tosefta, and halakic *Midrashim were among their literary achievements.Heb. "study" or "learning"). Rabbinic Judaism produced two Talmuds: the one known as "Babylonian" is the most famous in the western world, and was completed around the fifth centuty CE; the other, known as the "Palestinian" or "Jerusalem" Talmud, was edited perhaps in the early fourth century CE. Both have as their common core the *Mishnah collection of the *tannaim, to which are added commentary and discussion (*gemara) by the *amoraim (teachers) of the respective locales. Gemara thus has also become a colloquial, generic term for the Talmud and its study. tanna (adj. tannaitic, pl. tannaim). A Jewish *sage from the period of Hillel (around the turn of the era) to the compilation of the Mishnah (200 CE), distinguished from later *amoraim. Tannaim were primarily scholars and teachers. The *Mishnah, *Tosefta, and halakic *Midrashim were among their literary achievements.

Targum (Heb. "translation, interpretation"). Generally used to designate Aramaic translations of the Jewish *scriptures. See also *Septuagint (in a sense, Greek Targums). Targum (Heb. "translation, interpretation"). Generally used to designate Aramaic translations of the Jewish *scriptures. See also *Septuagint (in a sense, Greek Targums). 

temple. In the ancient world, temples were the centers of outward religious life, places at which public religious observances were normally conducted by the *priestly professionals. In traditional Judaism, the only legitimate Temple was the one in *Jerusalem, built first by king Solomon around 950 BCE, destroyed by Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar around 587/6 BCE, and rebuilt about 70 years later. It was destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE. The site of the ancient Jewish Temple is now occupied, in part, by the golden domed Mosque of Omar. In recent times, "temple" has come to be used synonymously with *synagogue in some Jewish usage.. In the ancient world, temples were the centers of outward religious life, places at which public religious observances were normally conducted by the *priestly professionals. In traditional Judaism, the only legitimate Temple was the one in *Jerusalem, built first by king Solomon around 950 BCE, destroyed by Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar around 587/6 BCE, and rebuilt about 70 years later. It was destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE. The site of the ancient Jewish Temple is now occupied, in part, by the golden domed Mosque of Omar. In recent times, "temple" has come to be used synonymously with *synagogue in some Jewish usage.

tongues. In Christian *charismatic circles, ecstatic utterance while in a state of religious excitation; sometimes regarded as a special spiritual language (see *NT Paul's 1 Corinthians 14.9) or ability to speak in different languages (see *NT Acts 2.1-15). tongues. In Christian *charismatic circles, ecstatic utterance while in a state of religious excitation; sometimes regarded as a special spiritual language (see *NT Paul's 1 Corinthians 14.9) or ability to speak in different languages (see *NT Acts 2.1-15).  

Torah, torah (Heb. "teaching, instruction"). In general, torah refers to study of the whole gamut of Jewish tradition or to some aspect thereof. In its special sense, "the Torah" refers to the "five books of Moses" in the Hebrew *scriptures (see *Pentateuch). Torah, torah (Heb. "teaching, instruction"). In general, torah refers to study of the whole gamut of Jewish tradition or to some aspect thereof. In its special sense, "the Torah" refers to the "five books of Moses" in the Hebrew *scriptures (see *Pentateuch). 

transubstantiation. In Roman *Catholic Christian *dogma, the change, during the *eucharist, of the substance of bread and wine into the substance of Christ's body and blood -- the "accidents" (taste, color, shape) of the elements are believed to remain the same, but the substance or essence (in an Aristotleian sense) changes into the holy elements of the sacrifice. This interpretation was largely rejected by *Protestant reformers.. In Roman *Catholic Christian *dogma, the change, during the *eucharist, of the substance of bread and wine into the substance of Christ's body and blood -- the "accidents" (taste, color, shape) of the elements are believed to remain the same, but the substance or essence (in an Aristotleian sense) changes into the holy elements of the sacrifice. This interpretation was largely rejected by *Protestant reformers.

trinity. In *classical Christian *dogma, God the Father, Christ the Son, and the Holy Spirit exist in perfect unity, as three "persons" in one God. The nature of this union was much debated in classical Christianity, and Western and Eastern expressions differ. trinity. In *classical Christian *dogma, God the Father, Christ the Son, and the Holy Spirit exist in perfect unity, as three "persons" in one God. The nature of this union was much debated in classical Christianity, and Western and Eastern expressions differ.  

typology. A form of (usually *biblical) interpretation wherein a person, event, or institution is viewed as foreshadowing a later one. For example, for Christian interpreters, Abraham's intended sacrifice of Isaac (Genesis 22) is seen as a "type" of the sacrificial death of Christ. typology. A form of (usually *biblical) interpretation wherein a person, event, or institution is viewed as foreshadowing a later one. For example, for Christian interpreters, Abraham's intended sacrifice of Isaac (Genesis 22) is seen as a "type" of the sacrificial death of Christ.