Anthony de Jesús 

 

Thomas J. Knock, To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for A New World Order 

 

• Knock argues for the importance of domestic constituencies both in the US and abroad. Specifically, Knock brings to light the important role that US Socialists had on Wilson’s internationalism. Also emphasizes the importance of other progressives and leftist. Does a good job of showing the important links between domestic policy and foreign policy. In other words, these constituencies believed that a progressive foreign policy would have an important impact on creating a progressive domestic policy. Knock also describes the impact that foreign constituencies had (or did not have) on actual policies pursued by European governments. In any case, Knock does an excellent job of showing that Wilson used his office to appeal to these foreign peoples. In essence, Wilson is the first President to see use his office in a way that went beyond appealing only to a domestic constituency.
• Wilson and Wilsonianism are topics that seem to lead to “pro” or “anti”-Wilsonian analyses. Where does Knock fall? (Truth in advertising-I tend to be sympathetic of Wilsonianism as a theory, suspicious of leaders who claim to be Wilsonian and use its rhetoric, and critical of Wilson’s policies towards Latin America and Russia).
• Do the foundational factors that Knock lists in Chapter 1 lead to a true “community of nations” or only a “community” of western nations considering that so many nations in the world both then and now do not have “Roman law” as the basis of their legal system and are not Christian? Thus, did Wilson truly believe in a community of nations when so many did not have those foundational characteristics?
• Does the fact that Knock states “There is some irony in the fact that Wilson interfered in the internal affairs of neighboring states…on a scale to rival Roosevelt and Taft” yet fails to deal with this “irony” have any impact on his interpretation of Wilsonianism.
• Does Knock overemphasize Wilson’s links to Socialism and Wilson’s anti-capitalism? Knock acknowledges that Wilson was a political genius (“political animal” is the term he uses). So historians would be wise to differentiate between political rhetoric (especially in an election year—see chapter 6) and actual policy results (and even intentions).
• Is it fair to say that Wilson was ahead of his times?
• I tend to agree that one cannot understand foreign policy in the 20^th century without understanding Wilsonianism. However, which of the following—Wilsonianism as mere rhetoric (cynical approach) or Wilsonianism as policy (optimistic approach)—has had a greater impact? Or is it a combination of both?

Chapter 1 – A Political Autobiography

• Was disturbed by the concentration of wealth in the hands of the few (Progressive tendency). He was a reformer.

• International law as “organic development.”

  • Three foundational factors for a community of nations:

    • 1. recognition of Roman law as the basis of Western legal system.

    • 2. commerce in ideas and goods

    • 3. most vital component was Christianity

  • Thus, by 1894 Wilson had already developed theoretical foundations for his community of nations.

• Show the world how to “walk in the paths of liberty.”

• Importance of moral responsibility.

• Wilson’s had large impact on the peace movement. More so than they had on him.

• American exceptionalism. Unique amongst nations.

Chapter 2 – Wilson and the Age of Social Inquiry

• Wilson (New Freedom) as the middle choice candidate between a Roosevelt (New Nationalism) moving to the left and Taft on the right. Wilson would destroy monopolies and restore competition.

• Social reform would be an important part of his platform.

• Importance of the Socialist Party in 1912.

• Wilson intentionally established a link between domestic and foreign policy.

• Importance of Mexican Revolution.

  • Challenged his belief that democratic processes alone could bring about necessary social and economic changes.

  • “special interest” would always attempt to hold back the future.

• Wilson critical of the role that foreign “special interest” had in Mexico. Critical of the “Big Stick” and “Dollar Diplomacy.”

• Real cause of the problems in Mexico was economic and not social à This leads to foreign “special interest.”

• American sympathy should always be on the side of a people in revolt.

Chapter 3 – Searching for a New Diplomacy

• At the beginning of WW1 most Americans didn’t think they had anything to do with that war.

• Critical of “balance of power” thesis, which had dominated diplomatic relations between the Allies and Central powers.

• Begins formulating ideas for a new diplomacy (based on equality and sovereignty of states) and the Pan-American Pact was his attempt at experimenting with this “new diplomacy.”

• Yet, his new diplomacy in the form of the Pan-American Pact was economically advantageous for the US.

• Wilson learning the importance of creating domestic foundational support of any international policies he may pursue.

Chapter 4 – The Political Origins of Progressive and Conservative Internationalism

• Throughout first 18 months Wilson had done little to cultivate public opinion for a league.

• Quest for peace and new frontier provided common ground for liberal reformers, pacifist, and socialist.

• These movements liked foreign and domestic policy. Peace was essential to the labor movements, women’s rights, etc.

• The socialists seem to have a huge impact on Wilson. On the other hand, conservative internationalist (CI) would have little influence on Wilson b/c they didn’t concern themselves with economic causes of war, disarmament, self-determination, or democratic control of foreign policy. Yet, by ignoring this domestic group he was setting himself up for failure later.

• Wilson’s self-restraint in trying to stay out of the war made him something of a hero in progressive internationalist (PI) eyes.

• PI’s believed, in the issue of preparedness, that big business, munitions makers, big navy advocates, etc., in pushing the issue were looking to thwart social and economic progress at home and abroad.

Chapter 5 – The Turning Point

• By 1916 Wilson working towards implementing the Pan-American Pact (he would fail). Wanted this to provide a model for the Euro’s.

• Wilson did seem to understand the linkage between domestic and foreign policy (although its clear he also had blind spots).

• At this point Wilson is finally making his ideas clearer to the American people and the world.

• Knock discusses all the attempts made by the Wilson administration to mediate amongst the European powers. And the problems that they faced.

• Problem of General Pershing chasing Pancho Villa all over northern Mexico. Knock doesn’t really deal with Wilson’s interventionism (he does mention it on pg. 84).

• Knock uses some circular logic to defend these interventions by arguing that Wilson believed Pan-American Pact was necessary in order to prevent the causes of such interventions. Perhaps this was an ingenious attempt by Wilson to ensure Latin American support. We will intervene in your affairs until you ratify this treaty (which in itself could be described as intervention) which will prevent us from intervening in your affairs.

Chapter 6 – Raising a New Flag: The League and the Coalition of 1916

• Knock revises the date when partisanship entered into debates over the league. Instead of 1918 congressional campaign it was the 1916 presidential re-election.

• In 1916 campaign Wilson explicitly linked reform and foreign policy.

• Wilson starts initiating an extremely progressive program that alienates and motivates his opposition.

  • Puts the burden of military preparedness on the wealthy.

  • Endorses a foreign policy of progressive internationalism “far in advance” of even the Socialist Party.

  • Endorses the Progressive Party platform and pushes the enactment of child labor laws, worker insurance against accidents, and eight hour day.

• Knock emphasizes Wilson’s critiques of capitalism.

• This campaign finally started the educative process for the American public. It also alienated many people, which would impact the future.

• In the election Wilson accomplished what he had set out to do and won a good proportion of the former Progressive Party vote and Socialist vote.

• Wilson begins to have an impact on European publics although Euro leaders are opposed to much of his plan.

Chapter 7 – “All the Texts of the Rights of Man”: Manifestoes for Peace and War

• Lodge’s unilateralism.

• “Peace without victory.” Important in creating a functioning league. Euro’s not thrilled with this proposition.

• Before Zimmerman letter and sinking of American ships more radical elements of the PI’s spoke for majority of Americans.

• American belligerency gets US a place at the table.

Chapter 8 – “If the War Is Too Strong”: The Travail of Progressive Internationalism and the Fourteen Points

• With the war the obstacles to creating a League took on new twists and intensity.

  • Beginnings of opposition in the Senate.

  • Growing influence of CI’s.

  • Entry into war had an impact on PI’s (a “fearful toll”).

  • Divergence between America and allied objectives.

• Wilson refused to take any internationalist, conservative or progressive, into his confidence during the war. Alienates everyone.

• There was much in the wartime policies of the administration that had progressive characteristics.

• Civil liberties become an issue and socialist and other progressives bare a good deal of the brunt of attacks. Again, Wilson will alienate both of his flanks.

• Bolsheviks and Brest-Litovsk.

Chapter 9 – Waiting for Wilson: The Wages of Delay and Repression

• Lack of specificity when it came to the League was problematic.

• Throughout the book Knock makes excuses for some of Wilson’s questionable decisions. The last few lines on 156 are just one of his attempts to absolve Wilson of intervening in Russia. However, Knock acknowledges the damage (domestically) that the intervention caused for him. David Fogglesong’s book entitled America's Secret War against Bolshevism : U.S. Intervention in the Russian Civil War, 1917-1920 is a good, admittedly more critical, analysis of Wilsonianism as well as the beginnings of “secret” interventions in foreign countries.

• “reach the peoples of Europe over the heads of their rulers.” --> would have to do this in the US as well.

• Is Knocks argument that Wilson’s “Fourth Liberty Loan Address” brought an end to the war a sound one?

Chapter 10 – “The War Thus Comes to an End”

• Opposition to president and League. Republicans argue that democrats had and were using the war to attack the free enterprise system instilling fear in the business community. Also, they attack Wilson by arguing that unconditional German surrender was essential and anything less was unpatriotic.

• Wilson faced similar attacks from the allies. However, Wilson argued that a harsh finally to the war would undercut the League. In the end he was forced to capitulate to many of the allied demands. Wilson tries to find a middle ground between unconditional surrender and peace without victory.

• His alienation of the conservative internationalist led by Taft le them to go on the attack.

• Mid term elections returns a Republic majority --> Wilson guilty of a number of political gaffes. Never say that the peoples vote will either confirm or reject your past leadership before an election!!! B/C if you lose, there isn’t much to work with.

• Knock emphasizes that one of the major causes of Wilson’s failures in these years was due to his failure to nurture the domestic constituency as he had done in his own re-election campaign (Progressives and Socialists).

• Failure to bring Senators to the peace negotiations was a mistake. It seems that at some point this political genius lost his political acumen.

• Wilson had done a great deal to make the League an important concept in the minds of millions could not be ignored, even if he faced many failures in attempting to implement it.

Chapter 11 – The Stern Covenanter

• In Europe the masses viewed Wilson as a hero. However, there were problems translating this public opinion into political capital that Wilson could use to influence allies.

• The process of watering down the league begins as countries try to create a compromised community of nations that is most beneficial to each nation involved in the talks (small states versus large states, colonies, etc.).

• Of course, upon returning with the treaty the signature of the Senate was necessary for approval and the Senate --> Thus more watering down of the treaty (especially since the Senate was in hostile hands).

• Wilson’s attempt to insert progressive ideas into treaty such as safe and fair working conditions and racial and ethnic equality.

• By the end the treaty was far more conservative than anything Wilson wanted.

Chapter 12 – “A Practical Document and a Humane Document”

• Trusteeships --> How to deal with colonies?

• Knock argues that even though league was under attack from everyone, Wilson still managed to maintain a great deal of the international progressivism that the leagues was based upon. Undoubtedly, the league was revolutionary even in its diluted form!!!

• Wilson needed to face the reality that it would be difficult to create an “ideal” League simply b/c of the fact that it would be hard for countries who had inflicted the most destructive terror in history upon each other for the previous years to build a peace based on Wilsonianism. They did not and could not trust each other at that moment.

• In the end they created a more “practical” document, but it was still a revolutionary document.

Chapter 13 – “The Thing Reaches the Depth of Tragedy”

• Now Wilson would face the “less than ideal” conditions at home in his attempt to pass this “practical” document with its “idealistic” foundations!!!

• The League and: sovereignty, Monroe Doctrine, etc.

• The “compromised” treaty alienated his left flank for giving up too much and angered his right flank for not going far enough in protecting American interests. Combined with his political mistakes (no Senators at Versailles, repression years, mid term election mistakes, Wilsonian silence and stuborness, etc) the treaty was doomed.

• Poor Wilson called a Socialist by businessmen and a fascist by leftist.

• Isolationist, unilateralist, and “globalist” --> Extremely divided environment at home.

Chapter 14 – Wilson’s Fate

• In Europe the allies would now “take the treaty hostage” and force concessions out of Wilson that essentially undercut the treaty. Germany would be dealt with harshly. Colonies would maintained.

• These events of course would further alienate PI’s at home.

• Internationally, PI’s felt that Wilson had given too much away. Combined with the fact that Wilson did nothing for Progressives domestically his progressive support was evaporating into hostile lightning.

• In the end Wilson was playing the symbolic role of “Bolshevik” and “fascist” for his enemies.

• “Stubbornness thesis” versus “sickness thesis” for Wilson’s unwillingness to take “half a League.” Of course, Knock favors the sickness theory. Regardless, in the end the US fails to ratify it.

• More important than isolationism was the battle over what type of internationalism the US would pursue.

Epilogue

• The importance of Wilsonianism in history: as rhetoric, as policy, etc.