Shaping of the Modern World

 

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Brooklyn College Core Curriculum:
The Shaping of the Modern World

Section 15: The Soviet Experiment 1918-1989

Introduction: This Week's Goals

The Russian Revolution ultimately failed, but the Soviet Experiment remains one of the defining events of the 20th century. Today, Russian studies has fallen from academic fashion, and Marxism is dismissed or ignored in many economics departments. But for 70 years The USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) was one of the two great powers on earth, and under its influence more than half the world's people lived under some form of Communist government. In the West, foreign policy for most of that 70 years was determined by reaction to the "Soviet threat," and in Western Europe (and to a much lesser extent in the United States) internal social welfare policy was driven by a concern to promote social equality without a revolution. For the the rest of the world -- colonized by European states -- just as World War I severely weakened the economic power of Britain, France, and Germany, the conflict between the Soviet bloc and the West helped the process of ending imperialism.

In this section we shall:

  • Understand the circumstances that led to revolution in Russia.
    • Russian distinctiveness.
    • Failure of Tsarism.
    • Social upheaval during World War I.
    • The element of Chance.
  • Examine the legacy of Lenin.
    • Lenin as the "good Communist."
    • Lenin's creation of oppressive state structures.
  • Discuss Stalinism.
    • Stalin's successes.
    • Stalinism as a form of Communism.
  • Assess success and failures of the Soviet system.

Text

Kagan, 536-41, 823-28, 865-72, 839-44, 965-74, 1018-25

Multimedia

Sources

For more texts on the Russian Revolution see the Modern History Sourcebook: Russian  Revolutiuon and Post War Eastern Europe.

Outline

I. Tsarist Russia - the Russian Ancien Regime.

A. Geography of Russia

  • "Russia" has two historical homes:
    • The area of "Rus" around the ancient city of Kiev (now the area called Ukraine). This was the center of a major state until it was conquered by the Mongols.
    • "Muscovy" -- based in the Oka-Volga basin around Moscow. It was this area that grew into the Russian Empire after the Princes of Muscovy threw off the control of the Mongols.
    • Russia only emerged as an independent state in the 16th century.
    • The king took the title "Tsar" [or "Czar," the Russian form of the word "Caesar."]
  • Russia - Growth 1700-1917
    • Under the Tsars, Russia  expanded: south to Ukraine and the Black Sea; west (where it eventually took over Finland, Swedish territories on the Baltic Coast, and Poland); east, where Russia conquered its former rulers, and pushed across Siberia to the Pacific.
    • 1/6th Earth's land surface.
  • "Russia" can mean either the historic area of Eastern Europe dominated by Muscovy, or the entire Russian controlled land in Asia and Europe.
  • "Soviet Union" is simply a short form of "USSR."  The USSR included 15 other "republics."

B. Culture

Russian culture was quite distinct from that of Western Europe, which had never been ruled by Mongols, and was built on common experiences such as the Latin tradition of the Church, the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Enlightenment. Russia was:

  • Geographically distinct.  Between the major centers of Russian population and the great mass of European population there were great expanses of sparsely populated forests and marshes.
  • Slavic. Russia's people spoke a language related to Polish, Serbo-Croatian, Czech, etc.  One of the peculiarities of European culture has been that while educated people in the major Western countries have been required to learn each other's languages (French, German, English, Italian, Spanish) as part of an expected education, the Slavic languages have never been commonly taught.
  • Russian Orthodox.  The Russian state church has been perhaps the most consistent cultural influence.
  • Byzantine Background.  Most Western states looked to the Latin-speaking Roman Empire and a secular Latin culture always existed. [One of the consequences of the insistence of Catholicism on Latin was that educated Westerners always had access to the non-Christian writings of the ancient world.]  Russia, however, was converted to Christianity by the Greek-speaking East Roman (or "Byzantine") Empire.  The Byzantine missionaries did not insist on the use of  Greek, and translated texts into a Slavic language (a special church languages called "Church Slavonic"). This meant that Russian culture was influenced by Byzantium,  but did not access the classical heritage until very late.  Some of the effects:
    • Autocracy: Byzantine political tradition gave power to the emperor.
    • All education is based on Slavonic translations of Greek Church texts. There is no Renaissance in Russia. It does draw on part of the same cultural heritage as the West - i.e. Christianity, and some Greek thought, but not on other parts that came down from Latin antiquity.

C. Tsarist Government

The  Tsar exercised and absolutism unlike anything in the West. There were no countervailing powers:

  • The Church was under state control.
  • The Aristocracy was not powerful:  It was not an ancient independent institution but dependent on the Tsar for its existence and power. It was subordinate to the state, and increasingly in the 19th century it becomes a service aristocracy, looking to state offices for power and prestige.
  • No one has free speech or "rights" such as trial by jury.

There were some limits on the Tsar's power

  • Size of country. An old saying was that "God is on high and the Tsar is far away."   The nobles do have effective local power.

D. Peasant Society - Serfdom

For all of the Tsarist period most people (over 90%)  were peasants. There was no Industrial Revolution until 1890s. Most peasants were serfs (tied laborers) until 1861.

Russian serfdom was brutal, hardly different from slavery

  • Serfs were sold with land
  • Could be gambled away
  • No effective laws to regulate their treatment.

E. Lateness of Industrial Rev

Russia was an economically backward state compared to almost every other major European country. There was no middle class until the late 19th Century and even then it was not very large. Towns in Russia were mainly administrative centers, not industrial cities.

In the late 19th Century Russia began  to industrialize,  but even then businessmen do not become a political force as they depend on the State for contracts -- industrialization is lead by the state.

II. Politics and History of the Russian Ancien Regime

I am going to look at the politics and history of Russia up to the Revolution so that no-one thinks the revolution just happened. As well as being related to western European ideas like communism, the USSR of the present day reflects traditions  in Russia's past.

A. Ivan the Terrible (or "the Awesome") 1533-1584

  • First Tsar of Russian (Had been Grand Prince of Moscow).

B. Peter the Great 1688-1725

Tried to modernize Russia.

  • Took control of the Church - Holy Synod a government body 1721.
  • "Incognito" visit to Holland 1697 - learnt shipbuilding
  • Founded iron, ammunition and textile industries - note that these industries were all to help the army.
  • Founded St Petersburg - a window on the West -- the cost was thousands of peasants dying of malaria.
    • Moscow - symbol of Old Russia
    • St. Petersburg - symbol of the New Russia

Note some important themes here, which have been repeated in later centuries:

  • Significant change comes from the top.
  • "Modernization" is almost always understood as "Westernization." This can mean, at different times: adopting Western industrial or military methods; adopting western educational methods; adopting Marxism; adopting modern Capitalism.

C. Catherine the Great (1762-1796)

Another important ruler. She re-established control of the State by the Tsars after a period of loss of Control. She was in origin a German Princess who came to power after she got rid of her husband, Peter III.

She had a good press in the West as an  "Enlightened Despot." In fact she  made conditions worse for serfs by buying good will of the nobles.

[Myth of her death under a stallion. One story students often know about her is that she supposedly died while having sex with a horse. This story is completely untrue, but it does reflect a common theme of male writers when confronted by a powerful woman - that she must be either "masculine" or perverted in some way. Louis XIV of France had just as many lovers as Catherine, but no-one spread a story that he died while having sex with a  cow! ]

D. Early 19th Century

Napoleon's attack on Russia was extremely violent, and also failed. It ended up:

  • Encouraging Russian nationalism.
  • Making Russia seem invincible for 1/2 the 19th C. - writers talked of the   "The Russian Bear."
  • Making Enlightenment ideals suspect.

E. Alexander I 1802-1825

First of all Liberal - even talked of emancipating the serfs. But after Napoleon he become a religious conservative.

D. Nicholas I 1825-1855

He was the epitome of reactionary conservatism.

In 1825 the Decembrist Revolt among liberal army officers called for constitutionalism and abolition of serfdom. It was the  first "political" revolt in Russian history, but was put down with force.

Nicholas adopted a  Policy of Official Nationality with the slogan "Orthodoxy, Autocracy and Nationalism."

Important: The result was the progressive alienation of the educated classes in Russian from both the Church and the State.

E. Alexander II "the Liberator" 1855-81

After the humiliation of Russia in the Crimean War, there was another move towards "modernization."

Abolition of Serfdom 1861 -- Another example of Reform from above in Russian History. [Two years before American slaves.]

Rural Life and Problems

A crucial mistake was made in the abolition of serfdom, one which lead to continuing social problems. Unlike in France in 1789, where the peasants got their land freely, and afterwards became a very conservative force in later French society, the Russian   peasants they had to pay for the land they got over many decades (the money went to government, which  had already compensated the nobles). Serfs seem to have felt this was unfair, but more importantly they could not afford to pay. The result was no or little progress in agricultural technology, and massive social discontent.

  • Population Growth from 1860s: 50 - 100 Million 1860 - 1900. Some argued that there was not enough land to go round.
  • Peasants were treated like children: although free they could not sell land or leave the village. The aim was to ensure tax collection and a supply of soldiers.
  • The Mir. Peasants were forced to live in Mirs [The Mir was a communal landholding system.]  Land might be redistributed every 10-120 years according to need.  This later appealed to some socialists, but redistribution led to problems with the modernization of farming -- why should a farmer upgrade land if it was going to be taken away?.

So on the land even after emancipation, peasants were not really free and many of them were in debt.

Alexander II's leanings to constitutionalism

Alexander also had some desire to allow constitutional government - but he was killed before it could be put into effect. Lets look at his murder, since it points to the future.

F. 19th Century Political Opposition to Tsardom

The policy of Official Nationality alienated serious intellectuals from the government - e.g. Tolstoy.

The Intelligentsia was a uniquely Russian phenomenon. It referred to those who made their living through their education, and in Russia they constituted a social group.   Among the intelligentsia there was an important movement dedicated to changing society -- not in there own interest, but for the peasants!

This movement had its origins among the sons and daughters of the nobility who felt that they owed a debt to the serfs. They talk about this as a "duty" (dolg). Another important source of support was among the sons of priests - who for unexplained reasons became ferocious foes of the Tsar. Seminaries become centers of radical sentiment. Most students at universities also seem to have been radically discontent with society. The Regime was so autocratic that people just opposed it. Since the State was so involved in the Church, the radicals become militant atheists.

From the 1860s, Revolution becomes almost a religion amongst this group. Those who got arrested they had to stay revolutionaries. Women who did not marry by 21 also had to stay radical, as they could not re-integrate with noble society.

"Land and Freedom" was the main revolutionary organization - called Populists/Narodniks

Activities in 1870s - Mostly by students

They went around preaching revolution to the peasants. [The peasants often reported them to the police.] The students were upset that their revolutionary message was not heeded. In 1879 there was a split between and a reformist wing -- which wanted social/constitutional change -- and a a terrorist wing - "The People's Will" (note the Rousseauian reference).

Terrorism

The terrorists decided that the peasants were not rising because they were afraid of the Tsar, so they try to destabilize the system.

  • 1879-1881 - they kill 1000's of officials
  • By 1881 - still no revolution - so what to do? They decide to kill the Tsar - Alexander II
    • One got a job as a carpenter, and made an exploding table leg, but the Tsar was not at dinner.
    • They dug a tunnel under train, but the Tsar changed trains.
    • Finally one killed the Tsar in his carriage - he threw a bomb that kills both Tsar and revolutionary in March 1881.
  • But there was no revolution - the terrorists had totally misjudged the situation.

The important thing to note is the tradition of opposition and violent revolution in late 19th C. Russia. It was from this tradition that the leaders of the Russian Revolution came.

G. Alexander III 1881-1894 and Reaction

After assassination of Alexander II, a police state was instituted..

  • Pograms against Jews were directed by the state with the intent of diverting popular discontents away from the state and towards Jews.
  • 1880s a period of oppression
  • By 1890s most terrorists in exile in Siberia or in exile abroad.

H. Change in late 19th Century

Despite political repression the government saw that Russia must change to keep great power status. These changes were later to undermine Tsarism.

Industrialization

Led by Sergei Witte in the 1890s. He wanted the 100 year process of the Industrial Revolution in UK to be gone through in 10-20 years. He was helped by French Capital investment. There was massive growth - e.g. Trans-Siberian Railway.

Social Pressures of Industrialization

The same stresses and strains on society as in the West but very much quicker and more intense. There was the rapid creation of an urban proletariat in major cities, with very bad conditions for workers

In the 1890s there was a famine, which was embarrassing to the state, but it also energized popular movements that had been dormant in the 1880s.

I. New Political Parties in Early 20th C. Russia

After a period of quiet, a series of new political parties were organized among the   Intelligentsia.

Social Revolutionaries 1901

The y Looked back to peasant Russia and the old populists. They said above all they are for the peasants, and disliked the industrialization that is proceeding at the time. The loved the Mir as a kind of Russian Socialism, and opposed trends to change it. They were often anti-Semitic.

Constitutional Democrats (Cadets) 1903

These were most like western liberals. They wanted non-violent constitutional change.

Social Democrats 1898

These were Marxists modeled on the German Social Democrats. They were happy about industrialization and looked to the newly emerging proletariat. [Marx's Das Kapital was published in Russia! The censor said it was too long and too boring and so no one would read it.] It was this group that became the basis of the Bolshevik and then the Communist Party that ruled in the Soviet Union.

III. Bolshevism and Russia to 1914

A. George Plekhanov 1857-1918

Plekhanov was the founder of Social Democrats: a populist who had given  up on the peasants. His problem was that Marx had said that Revolution took place in advanced states and Russia was not advanced. Plekhanov called for two revolutions.

  • A bourgeois revolution to overthrow Tsardom. At this stage Marxists should help the bourgeois parties.
  • A second revolution - using the bourgeois liberties to organize workers and have a socialist revolution.

The  Problem was this would all take a long time - so why should workers work now for a bourgeois rev, that would not give then any benefits?

B. Vladimir Illich Ulyanov - Lenin 1870-1924

  • He was born 1870 in the Volga Country. His brother had been executed for plotting vs. Alexander III.
  • 1893 - Lenin studied Law passed with top of class honors.
  • Exiled in Siberia 1895 - but was allowed to write
  • 1900 went into exile

Lenin's Theories

Lenin became involved with the Social Democrat Party in exile, and became an important theorist.  He is next in importance to Marx, whom he develops significantly. It was Lenin who worked out how to take power, something Marx had never really worked out.

Opposition to what he saw in Western Socialist parties, which accommodated to the state. What is to be Done? 1902 expressed his ideas.

Lenin did not trust workers without "revolutionary consciousness and specifically distrusted trade unions. He dismissed "T.U. Consciousness". Essentially, he argued that workers do not know what is good for them [Compare Rousseau and Robespierre's position on the general will.].

His model was a secret Party (like the old  Narodnik model of party). The party was to be the "Vanguard of the Revolution." It was to  be stable, to be selected, to be a group of professional revolutionaries.

The Party must know what it is doing. Democratic discussion was allowed on open questions, but all must follow the party line once a decision is reached - this is known as "Democratic centralism." A strict party hierarchy was to be followed. The   Party works secretly - it will will enter worker's groups to create change.

Lenin made a great distinction between  Strategy -- long term goals, not to be altered -- and Tactics - the day to day flexibility necessary to pursue the strategy.

C. Origins of Bolshevism

Many members of the SDP rejected Lenin's approach, and wanted to work with Trade Unions.

In 1903 there was the London Conference of the Russian Social Democrat Party. The question was should there be an open or closed party?

Lenin was opposed by Paul Martov  [Martov was the leader of the Jewish Bund - the Jews in Poland and the Pale; He was Jewish in language not faith.] Lenin's views were in a minority, but he managed to get a vote first on whether the Bund could remain as a distinct Jewish group within the SDP. This was rejected [perhaps reflecting anti-Semitism] and so the Bund members walk out --  leaving Lenin with a majority on the floor to win his idea of party organization. His group was called the "majority " [Bolsheviks] and his opponents (who were actually more popular) were called the "Minority" [Mensheviks].  Note that the Mensheviks were also revolutionary - but trusted the workers.

[Note on Tactics: if you cannot win a vote, always try to control the agenda. If that fails, you can always win via the minutes!]

D. Bolsheviks Organize separately only in 1912.

Led by Lenin from exile. He wrote at least 10 letters a day and lived and breathed revolution. Above all he saw importance of appealing to peasant discontent.

IV. War with Japan 1904 and the 1905 Revolution

The "Russian Revolution" is sometimes seen as three revolutions one 1905 and two in 1917.

A. War with Japan 1905

The aim of the war was to rally people around the Tsar, but Japan won. It was as if Grenada had defeated the USA.

Factory Workers' Problems

The War helped speed inflation and rise in price of food lead to riots in Moscow and St. Petersburg. But all the Tsar's troops were in East Asia and there was a power vacuum in the cities.

January 1905.

Father Gapon and march on Winter Palace Jan 22 1905 to present a  - petition to the Tsar. He was a sort of Orthodox "Liberation Theologian," who believed the Tsar would help his people if only he knew their sufferings.

The Star's troops opened fire, and over a 1000 people were killed. This punctured the myth that the Tsar loved his people. A real revolutionary movement develops. October 1905 a successful General Strike: nothing moved in Moscow or Petersburg. Bolsheviks later   claimed credit for the strike, but it seems to have been the Mensheviks and ordinary workers.

Worker's Councils, or Soviets were set up. They were able to have power as the Army was away in the East. When it returned the Tsar could reassert his authority.

B. October 1905: Constitutionalism

The Tsar gave in to the pressure,and issued the October Manifesto. He granted a Parliament (Duma) and some civil liberties.This splits the revolutionary movement.

  • The Socialists: the SRs and Mensheviks do not like it.
  • The Cadets split: The leader --Miliukov -- says the Manifesto was not enough. Others form a group called the Octoberists
  • There is also a new right-wing group formed called the Union of the Russian People.

Compare this to splits to divisions in French Revolution.

The socialist groups organized an armed uprising in Moscow in December 1905, . But the troops were back home and the revolt was put down, although troubles continued until 1907.

Duma I - 1906

Elections: only Cadets, Octoberists and URP. Other parties boycott. Immediately there is a dispute between Miliukov and the Tsar. Tsar dismisses the Duma and Sergei Witte who had suggested it.

V. Russia and the Tsar 1907-1914

The Tsar never accepted the October Manifesto that he had issued in 1905. He saw it as his sacred duty to preserve autocracy. So 1907-1914 you see the Tsar trying to get rid of the constitution.

A. New Dumas - II and III 1907

Duma II

After Miluikov saw Duma I dismissed he advocated passive resistance. But the govt. felt strong enough to forbid the Cadets [the most moderate group to run for Duma II] But the SRs decide the run, plus the URP. So you get a Duma II with extremes and no center. Duma II is dissolved.

Duma III

Duma III, on a more restricted property qualification. Peasants and workers disenfranchised. But Duma III is more moderate. Lasts its five year term 1907-1912.

Duma IV in 1912 also lasts. But has little power.

B. Government 1907-1914

These were years of economic progress and rapid industrialization. A lot of the funds came from France. There were even some advances in civil liberties. A plan was adopted to educate all boys and girls to 8th Grade (to be be gradually adopted by 1922). There is a big question of whether the revolution was inevitable or was Russia on the way to democracy?

Peter Stolypin 1862-1911 - PM from 1906-1911

He was last great conservative statesman in Russia. He was the one who had made changes in Duma.

Land Reforms 1906

Stolypin realized that the Mir system stifled progress in agriculture. He abolished the peasant's debt, and began making plans to give peasants individual land holdings, and to break up the Mir. (This was opposed by SRs on principal, and Lenin, who did not want the peasants to get to comfortable).

In 1911 Stolypin was shot by a double agent. Not clear if he was working for Tsar's secret police or the SRs when he did this. He had been effective and had shown some insight into problems. Without him leadership depended on the Tsar -- who faced problems that were to lead to a revolution

  • Continuing peasant unrest
  • Unhappy workers in the cities
  • National unrest amongst Poles, Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Latvians, etc.

VII. The Last Tsar: Nicholas I 1894 -1917

Character: Weak leader. Determined to preserve Tsarism as a sacred trust.

Political Policies

Tried to take back the reforms he had given in 1905. For example, he got a huge loan from the French so that he would not have to rely on the Duma.

And Alexandra

She was married to Nicholas in 1890s, and exercised significant influence over his decisions. Unfortunately for him, she seems to have totally misunderstood  Russia, and to have let personal issues guide her actions.

Hemophilia and the Tsarvitch

This disease -- in which internal bleeding cannot be stopped -- seems to have come from Queen Victoria, Alexandra's Grandmother. Alexandra was a convert to Orthodoxy, and she became extremely concerned to find a miraculous cure for her sons illness. She looked to faith healers.

Grigory Efimovich Rasputin (1871?-1916)

Rasputin was no where near as powerful as later myth, but he became part of the mythology of the revolution.

Theory of Sin: God loves the repentant sinner, therefore sin a lot.

Effectiveness as Hypnotist: Rasputin's power derived from his quite real ability to  stop the Tsarvitch's bleeding, apparently by hypnosis.

After Stolypin died Rasputin was to have great power. He managed to get his friends -- especially  Protopopov into office. They did not know how to run the country. His sexual activities and his power playing became a scandal and removed support from the Tsar.

Situation of Russia at Outbreak of First World War

  • Social Revolution due to Industrialization
    • Workers disaffected since 1905
  • Continuing Unrest in Countryside
  • Government that was weak, scandalous and causing inefficiency.
    • Ineffective Duma
    • Ineffective leadership.

VIII. First World War

We already discussed the Alliance system and how Russia got dragged into the war in support of Serbia. The War meant the end of old Russia.

A. Panslavism and Serbia

Russian foreign policy was consistent - support Slavs, and try to get a port in the Mediterranean.

B. Popularity of War: 1914

St Petersburg becomes Petrograd (which sounds more Russian)

The army was very excited: Some officers were anxious in case it was all over before they got to the front. Others asked if they should pack their dress uniforms.

The war was opposed by Tsarina, Rasputin, and Sergei Witte, who was still around. The Tsarina was German in origin. Rasputin sensed what the war would cost in peasant blood: In 1914 he sent a telegram to the Tsar:-

Let Papa not plan war, for with the war will come the end of Russia and yourselves and you will lose the last man.

The Tsar tore this to pieces. Rasputin wrote to him a remarkable prophecy.

Dear friend, I will say again a menacing cloud is over Russia lots of sorrow and grief it is dark and there is no lightening to be seen. A sea of tears immeasurable and as to blood? What can I say? There are no words the horror of it is indescribable. I know they keep wanting war from you evidently not knowing that this is destruction. Heavy is God's punishment when he takes away reason that is the beginning of the end. Thou art the Tsar Father of the People don't allow the madmen to triumph and destroy themselves and the People. Well, they will conquer Germany and what about Russia? If one thinks then verily there has not been a greater sufferer since the beginning of time she is all drowned in blood. Terrible is the destruction and without end the grief.  Gregory

C. Russia was unprepared to go to war

  • Armies went into battle with one gun for two soldiers -they were told to pick up the guns of dead comrades.
  • Support Services by Civilians

D. Losses in the War

  • Land: German Advance through all of Western Russia
  • Men -  Desertions:perhaps 1 1/2 Million by 1917.
  • Food shortages:- Revolution was looming.

The Tsar, unlike in 1905, had lost support and control over the Army by Spring 1917. He government simply melted away.

IX. The February Revolution 1917

Society fell apart. The major reason for revolt was disgust with the war. Even the generals a reported to have said "the army is drowning in its own blood."

But longstanding causes remain:

  • Peasant's anger about land
  • Population explosion 1860-1914

Workers Revolts in February 23 1917. [Russia used the old "Julian" Calendar, which was 11 days (?) behind the Gregorian calendar used in the West, and later in Russia. The result was that the "February revolution" actually took place in March 1917 on the standard calendar.].

This revolt was not organized by anyone. It began on a breadline and was unexpected even to Lenin who was in Switzerland at the time. He was soon to return.

The Tsar abdicated March 15 1917 - in favor of his brother Michael, but gives power to the Duma. The Cadets and conservatives organized a Provisional Govt.  (This is a simplification: there were very many more groups politically active.) But, in effect, two governments came into being

  • The Provisional Government - based in the Duma.
  • The Petrograd Soviet of Workers and Soldiers. A council set up by the workers in the Capital. Other soviets were set up in other cities. This has real power as it has the army and guns.

X. The Failure of the Provisional Government

The Provisional Government took over the old military alliances, and continued the War, but with no resources, especially after a failure of an offensive in summer 1917. The allies (UK and France) try to keep Russia in the War.

A. Problems for the Provisional Government

Continuation of the War is unpopular. Paul Miliukov had been promised by the UK and France that Russia would get the Dardanelles if it stayed in: A traditional Russian aim.

The Return of Lenin. Amnesty was granted to Political Prisoners April 1917. The Bolsheviks return from abroad. Trotsky from the Bronx, Lenin from Zurich.

Lenin made a deal with the German government, who gave him transit visa - the so-called sealed train. The Germans saw him as detrimental to the Russian war effort.

In Russia, Lenin takes leadership of the Bolsheviks. [Only Olga Kolajka (?) opposes him.]

B. Continuing Unrest in the Cities.

Unorganized riots in Petrograd in July 1917. Bolsheviks oppose these riots because they were not leading them.

C. Alexander Kerensky (1881-1970)

In response to the riots a new Cabinet formed by Kerensky is formed in July 1917. Kerensky was not effective. He would not use the harsh measures needed to restore order.

Involvement in the Kornilov Plot

This was a plot to establish a dictatorship. It is not clear, even from interviewing the survivors, what happened. But it seems thus:- Lavr Kornilov was a general. Kerensky was worried about order and the Bolsheviks. Kerensky makes a deal with Kornilov - Kornilov promised to take power with troops and get rid of Bolsheviks. Kerensky would then head a military dictatorship. But Kerensky got worried that Kornilov would take over, and so he turns to the Petrograd Soviet for help. The Soviet stops Kornilov and arrested him. In the process Kerensky weakened the Provisional government at the expense of the Soviet, and the Bolsheviks who were now dominating it.

XI. The October Revolution 1917

  • Leon Trotsky (1879-1940)
    Lived in the Bronx before leading the Red Army.
  • John Reed (1887-1920)
    American journalist who reported on the Revolution in Ten Days that Shook the World.
  • Vladimir Illyich Lenin (1870-1924): Call to Power, Oct 24, 1917

A. Bolshevik activities in 1917

A classic application of Lenin's theory of tactics. For instance, Marxist theory had no place for "soviets," But Lenin and Trotsky managed to gain control of the Petrograd Soviet.

Slogans were used to gain support -  "Peace, Bread and Land," "All power to the Soviets"

B. The Petrograd Soviets of Workers and Soldiers

Set up in Petrograd - issuing orders alongside the Provisional Government. Appealed to other countries workers for help.

C. Lenin's Role

To organize and inspire party. He stopped Bolsheviks co-operating with the Provisional government. Again a clear consciousness of what needs to be done.

D. Leon Trotsky

[Address in the Bronx - 1522 Vyse Avenue/ 172nd St]

Organizes in Petrograd, and becomes head of the Soviet there.

E. October 1917 (November 6-7-8 new Calendar)

This was more a coup d'etat than a massive revolution. The Bolsheviks stormed the Winter Palace and Kerensky fled leaving Lenin and co in charge. Moscow also came under Bolshevik control. The problem was how to expand power from Moscow and Petrograd to rest of the country.

XII. The Bolshevik's Immediate Actions Once in Power

We should see these actions as what Lenin did to maintain power. Marx had seen revolutions as a matter of taking over factories and redistributing wealth. The Bolsheviks were faced with the problem of how to actually secure power. Lenin's main promises were to give the peasants land and to get Russia out of the War. A key concept for Lenin becomes "the Dictatorship of the Proletariat" - which  justifies strong action.

Aims

  • To defeat class enemies - i.e. no civil liberties for the opposition - calls them "bourgeois"
  • To build the economy quickly -- there was a need to build up the economy devastated by war.
  • Only then, once all was well, would the dictatorship of the proletariat wither away, and government would just become a matter of administration.

This whole ideal is based on theories that economy would remain at a simple level. Also Lenin did not discuss the attractions of power in itself.

A. Press Censorship

When the Bolsheviks took power some of the press opposed them - e.g. Izvestia was not keen at first.

Press censorship was imposed Nov 9 1917

B. Elections to Constituent Assembly

This was in fact Lenin's first major difficulty. Elections had been arranged by the Provisional government and were allowed to take place. But the SR's and other non-Bolsheviks win most votes.

The Bolsheviks simply dissolve the new assembly - and blame SR win on the old "relation of political forces" -  Dec 1917

Instead, the Bolsheviks claimed "all power for the soviets." There was no revolt when the Bolsheviks did this.

C. End of War: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk March 3 1918

Lenin agreed to give up huge areas of Western Russia + agree to an indemnity. No alternative. It was never put into effect as Germany looses in the West in 1918.

D. June 1918 - Nationalization of all factories.

E. Execution of the Tsar and his Family 1918 removed a possible focus of opposition.

XIII. Civil War 1917-1921

The vital struggle if Bolshevism was to survive in Russia. See it as another element in what the Bolsheviks did to survive.

A. The Whites -  Supporters of the Tsar

They lead local civil wars in Ukraine, in the north, and in the East. The  US and UK were involved in supporting these groups.

B. The Reds and Leon Trotsky

The Red Army was set up immediately after revolution and proved very effective.

XIV. The New Socialist Order

A. War Communism

Organization for War until 1921. All decisions come from the top in a non-democratic manner - there was no time for consultation.

  • The Cheka - secret Police Dec 20 1917
  • Dictatorship of the Proletariat - organization of the "Vanguard of the Oppressed" (i.e. the Bolsheviks) as the ruling class to crush the oppressors.
  • Banks, Transport and heavy industry confiscated.
  • Real Reforms - e.g. education promised for all Communist Morality/ethics taught
  • Opposition suppressed:  Kronstadt Rebellion March 1921 - "Slogan: Soviets without communists"

B. Cultural Freedom

At First great intellectual and artistic freedom in Russia. "Constructivism" and other new ideas in art were tried. etc. Some intellectuals flock to Russia.

But the artists kept going to the party asking for others to be restrained - and later on socialist realism was imposed. (a sort of romanticized glorification of the worker - rather like some sentimental religious pictures)

C. The Third International (Comintern) 1919

After failure of pre-war 2nd International. This split European socialists into "Communists" and "Social Democrats". Tended to stop them fighting fascism.

All Communist parties were work for revolution on Russian model, and to look to Russia for leadership.

All parties were to adopt the title "Communist Part of XXX." The Bolsheviks became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union [CPSU]

XV. The New Economic Policy March 1921

A. Problems of Economics

  • Drought and famine 1918-1921 & Million Russians died of hunger and sickness
  • Spanish Flu in 1918 - killed more people than the War.
  • Not enough food: There was Aid from the USA in 1920-21 - start of a long tradition.

B. The New Economic Policy was instituted to solve some of these problems. A slowing down of the move to communism. Aim was increased food production.

NEP allowed peasants to farm for profit and also small businesses. They would pay taxes (not usual in communist countries now). Small industry allowed in private hands. The economy recovered by 1927.

C. Kulaks - Rich Peasants become a force in Russia. perhaps 5% of pop by 1927. This causes ideological disputes in the Politburo [the central policy committee of the party.]

XVI. Lenin's Death

Lenin had stroke 1922, died 1924

Lenin's role was crucial in the Russian Rev. But note the Marxist theory that individuals do not determine history. They would say great historical forces are actualized in actual people. Is this sufficient? In fact in USSR Lenin is lionized - see his Tomb in Red Square etc.

So far we have covered the  process by which the Tsar lost control of Russia and two revolutions in 1917 gave power to the Bolshevik party, led by Lenin. We have also looked at the consolidation of power by the Bolsheviks, and at the rule of Lenin. The big question is when did things go wrong.

Under Lenin, or under Stalin? Who really invented Stalinism?

XVII. Stalin Comes to Power

There was jockeying for power once Lenin started to fade. The main struggle was between Bukahrin and Trotsky, with another, Stalin on the sidelines at first.

A. Leon Trotsky(18 -1940)

His power due to role as head of the Red Army. His was the more left wing faction and was not keen on NEP. He wanted rapid industrialization to make Russia a great power. he Looked for worldwide revolution to support the Russian Rev. He was a creative ideological thinker - called for open discussion - although he was late convert to this.

B. Nicolai Bukharin (1888-1938)

The group opposed to Trotsky led ideologically by Nikolai Bukharin, the  editor of Pravda. He tended to be pro peasant.

C. Stalin (1879-1953)

But the real power was Stalin. [Stalin means "Man of Steel"]

Josef Djugushvili Stalin was a Georgian not a Russian, and was altogether unlike Lenin and Trotsky. He had been very poor as a child. Not an intellectual - he had trained as a Georgian Priest. He became active in SDP in 1908 - as a bank robber or conductor of "forced expropriations.

Stalin came to power as a bureaucrat - placing his supporters all over the Party. By 1912 he became part of the Central Committee. He won in the end because no one thought he was important at the beginning. In particular Stalin got control of the Purge committees.

Initially Stalin supported the NEP & Bukharin, and then he won the struggle against Trotsky. He simply out-maneuvered him by 1927. Trotsky sent into internal exile, then expelled from the country 1929. [He was finally killed with an Ice-Pick in Mexico City in 1940]

[Note: Trotskyism is an important force in the European left, which generally opposes the Soviet Union as "state capitalist."]

XVIII. Stalin in Power: A Revolution from Above

Stalin was concerned to have the revolution successful in one country - Russia, before the rest of the world. "Socialism in one country" doctrine 1924.

He was the only early Bolshevik leader leader not to have traveled abroad, or to speak other European languages.

Effectively from 1928 there is Second Revolution in which Stalin forces through massive industrial development.

A. Stalinism in the 1930's

  • Used brutal methods to obtain results
  • Coercion and Terror
  • More successful in achieving economic goals than the West which was in depression at the time.

Why did it go this way? There were reasons.

The NEP stops Working: NEP had been supported by Stalin. Its aim was to stop food shortages. But in 1928-29 it stopped working. The Kulaks held grain off the market to raise prices. Stalin in 1929 decided that Russia must industrialize and collectivize to match power of the West. [in other words, he adopted Trotsky's economic goals.]

B. Agriculture - Collectivization of Land

From 1929 - hoarded wheat confiscated. The Kulaks were "eliminated" - but this soon included all opposition.

Two Stages from 1928

  • Take away Kulak land and power. Use poorer peasants against Kulaks.
  • Force all peasants on to collective farms.

There was massive opposition - especially from Kulaks

  • They killed their animals - 100 million 1929-33
  • open warfare in the countryside

Massive state repression was directed against these people -- who were systematically killed.

Collectivization was put into effect.

  • Perhaps 10 Million people died in forced collectivization.
  • Millions were sent to forced labor camps and farms.
  • State took control of farm machinery - could be withdrawn from opponents.

Even after collectivization there was planned famine directed against the peasants. Millions were deliberately starved to death. Especially in  Ukraine. It is difficult to explain why. There is no rational reason. It was a way of controlling peasants. One of bleakest chapters in history.

  • 1928 - 98% of land was small farms
  • 1938 - 90% was collectivized

Collectivization was put into effect, but it did not produced food  efficiently. However peasants could not now starve the cities.

C. Rapid Industrialization

Stalin decided to go for rapid industrialization. In terms of achieving goals this was a success . There was a 400% increase in production in 12 years 1928-40 - the most rapid advance to Industrialization ever. Emphasis was on heavy Industry, esp. steel. Capital was raised by grain export.

D. Five Year Plans

A series of planned economic targets, setting goals for the next five years. Again it is a matter of direction from above. Began in 1928 with Gosplan - state planning agency - overseeing the program.

  • Regimentation of workers: Trade Unions under state control
  • New cites built - Many people brought into the cities

Despite the horror, it was probably this industrialization that let Russia stand up to Hitler.

E. Purges

All the economic progress was applauded by many in the West - especially when compared to the Depression that hit there in the 1930s. But there was another side to all this. Western praisers of Stalin ignored the pure social cost, which was massive. Huge numbers of people suffered. And the westerners ignored the repression.

Stalin did not feel secure in his power. He was especially jealous of old Bolsheviks and those who had worked during the 1917 revolutions. He was also paranoid about opposition.

There was opposition to the brutality of collectivization and industrialization. Also to new Comintern policies allowing co-operation vs. fascist groups.

1929 Bukharin was expelled from Politburo.

There were a series of  Show Trials when opponents would be forced to publicly recant there wrong-doings. esp. after 1934.

Massive Trials 1936-38. It is not clear why the victims made their false confessions. Thousands where killed or sent to the Gulag.

It was not clear to anyone why this was going on: There was no reason for it. But a loyal party was created for Stalin. Stalin was able to more than any Tsar in the way of oppression because of the modern methods open to him. He stands with Hitler in many respects.

XVIII. The Second World War

Destroyed many gains of 1930s, but united the Soviet peoples. We will pick up this theme in next two sections.

Web Exercise

This is a straightforward review project in which you should use all the evaluation skills you have acquired over the semester.

Visit the Revelations from the Russian Archives site at the Library of Congress.

Explain the goals of the exhibition, and discuss one section in detail. Do you think the exhibition is one sided? Does it have an argument to make? Could you make an argument *in favor* of the old Soviet system? [You might want to see if you can find a pro-Soviet site on the net.]

Discussion Questions

What aspects of Russian history distinguished it from Western European cultures?

How did distinctively Russian experiences contribute to Bolshevism in comparison to western Marxism such as that supported by the German SDP?

Why did Lenin argue for the "secret party" model in What is to be Done?

Who created the repressive state structures of the Soviet Union?

What was the "official" explanation of the purges?

What points of comparions and difference can you see between the Russian Revolution and the French Revolution?

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created 9/11/1998 : revised 5/26/1999