Shaping of the Modern World

 

  Section 17

 

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Brooklyn College Core Curriculum:
The Shaping of the Modern World

Section 17: Post War Themes: 1945-1989

Introduction: This Week's Goals

This is the last section of the course, so congratulations to all students who got this far! Our theme in this course has been that of "Modernization." We looked at how:

  • Absolutist and constiitutional politics contributed to modern ways in which states work.
  • The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment created aspecific  modern view of the world.
  • The American and French Revolutions brought the people to the fore of political arguments -- a phenonmenon that defines all forms of modern political discourse.
  • The Industrial Revolution began a still unfinished transformation in how people live and work.

In short, this course argued that by the beginning of the 19th century the "modern world" had come into being -- and that "modernity" understood in this sense was a feature of Western European and North American cultures alone. Because fo the strength of modern states, and the power of modern industry, the 19th and early 20th centuries were periods in which Western countries established a world-wide political, economic, and military hegemony. [They did not succeeed, however, in destroying other peoples' cultures.]

The first half of the twentieth century, as we have looked at it, showed the weaknesses of the Modern World.

  • Further advances in science undermined the "Enlightenment" principles wthat had formed the basis of Western political and economic ideas.
  • Conflict between Western countries lead to a series of enormously destructive wars.

The period between 1945 and 1989 is still too recent for us to have a clear perspective about what happened. In this section then, we will simply think about some themes that seem to be important. Your job is to grasp what these themes are:

  • Decolonization.  The Western imperial powers were so weakened by the two world wars that they lost the ability to maintain their overseas empires. At the same time, the spread of modern techniques of industrya and statecraft have allowed many of the previously dominated areas of the world to reestablish some control over their own destinies.
  • The Cold War. International politics was structure for much of the period as a struggle between the United States and its Allies, and the USSR. Then ending of the USSR, and collapse fof its control over Eastern Europe in 1989, marked the end of the "postwar" era.
  • The Continuing Vitality of Western European states and cultures. Despite the disasters of the first half of the century, the postwar recovery of Europe has led to greater wealth than ever.
  • Big Science.  Science and technology continue to be the motor forces of social change.

Text and Sources

Since the themes of this section are so complex, the textbook readings for each theme and the source readings are mixed together.  You should read all the Kagan assignments, but only read those source readings that interest you!

Decolonization

The Cold War

Europe, Yalta to Malta

Social Movements

Post-World War II  Thought

Multimedia

Politics

Outline

I Decolonization: The End Of Empire

A. Although modern international politics is very much the domain of the superpowers, it is often displaced to Third World conflicts. Many of these hang over from the old European empires. We are looking at these "little" conflicts today and the hard birth of the 3rd World.[The big exception is Latin America -although that is old Spanish Empire]

B. End of the European Dominance of the World? Politically yes. Economic power continues.

C. Many of these old colonial conflicts have been brought into superpower Cold War rivalry.

Roosevelt, The UN and Decolonization

A. The European powers did not want to lose their empires. Churchill in particular was opposed to the loss of the British Empire.

B. Roosevelt wanted the old European empires to end. This may have been due to idealism, but another factor was that without their world empires the European states would become relatively less powerful vis-a-vis the US which was a homogenous land power.

C. The United Nations specifically called for an end to colonization. UK, Belg, France, Holland, Port, US, Italy.

Reasons for Decolonization

A. The fundamental exploitative injustice, felt after the war of one country occupying another. Germany had been condemned just for that.

B. The effects of the War - weakened European countries.

Also they had been driven out of some areas by the Japanese. [France, Indochina: UK, Hong Kong, Burma: US, Philippines]

C. Spread of nationalist ideologies in occupied areas, plus Marxism and Communism. Often leaders were educated in Europe, e.g. all Indian leaders, even Ho Chi Minh.

II. The End of the French Empire: Indochina, West Africa and Algeria

A. Indo-China and the Vietnam Wars

1. Indochina was French. Conquered 1857-1883

Conquered by the Japanese in WWII, but France claimed rights after the war.

A Nationalist/Communist independence movement - Viet Minh had begun in 1930 led by Ho Chi Min (1892-1969). Had lobbied at Versailles in 1919 for self-determination for Vietnam, but there it was only applied to Europeans. [discuss appeal of communism to Third World - Capitalism associated with exploiting powers -- Extremes of wealth and poverty]

2. First Indochina War

Viet Minh fight Japan then France.

Opposition from many against a communist takeover. War broke out 1947. US aids in France, esp. after China goes communist in 1949.

Dien Bien Phu 1954 - French forces overrun.

1954 Division of the Country into two independent states divided in middle. Cambodia and Laos also made independent.

US becomes involved and then it is more a US than a French issue. SEATO set up 1954. Domino Theory. But you have the example of an imperial power leaving a mess behind.

3. Second Indochina War - Vietnam War

Korean War Background - 1950-53 US/UN had successfully fought an ideological war in Korea. Saw Vietnam in same light. I.e. all wars really waged from Moscow to promote communism. But Vietnam was more truly a colonialist nationalist war. US thought Korea showed containment worked. This got it involved in Vietnam. From 1956 US is supporting Ngo Dionh Diem in S. Vietnam and training the army.

US becomes involved when Viet Minh backed guerrillas, the Viet Cong (political wing of Nat. Liberation Front) begin to destabilize S Vietnam, a corrupt, but western orientated state. US demands for reform never effective. US intervention, Kennedy, then Johnson. US coup overthrew Diem in favor of Nguyen Van Thieu.

Guerilla war is difficult - US could not win by usual methods. Use of chemicals + bombing raids on Hanoi. Napalm (gasoline and gelatin to stick to peoples skin) was used.

500,000 US troops there in 1968.

One of the tragedies was the dragging into the war of Cambodia. Led to that countries almost total destruction. The war probably no more savage than any other war but there was one major difference. This was filmed by TV cameras, and US is a democracy.

This was the first war where many Americans thought the US was in the wrong, and that the methods it was using were thus criminal. At all times most people supported the war and its aims, but a significant number became disaffected with both the war and the country: Peace Movement, Draft resistors. Many Americans and Europeans came to regard the US not as protector of liberty, but as ambitious and aggressive and imperialist.

The war was eventually ended by the US being forced to leave in 1975. America has spent the past two decades working out its reactions. [Meanwhile, France has forgotten all about it.] Vietnam is now an independent country.

B. Algeria

Lies just across the Mediterranean from France. It was claimed to be part of Metropolitan France, and there was heavy French Settlement in the 100 mile wide coastal strip - 1 million French settlers. However, most of the population were Arabic and Berber speaking Berbers;

Revolt broke out 1954 - Algerian Liberation Front (FLN). There was a ferocious war for independence. This more or less destroyed the state in 1958. Charles de Gaulle (1890-1969) came out of retirement, to lead France to an acceptable peace. In fact France withdrew and Algeria became independent in 1962. De Gaulle restructured French State. Millions of Pied-Noirs emigrated to France.

C. Africa

France had extensive holdings in other parts of Africa. These were given independence, but kept in a French sphere of influence. They have a common currency.

They all look culturally to Paris. France is the European country most committed to keeping up its overseas influence - so its troops fight in the various wars its former colonies have, e.g. Chad vs. Libya.

D. Overseas Departments

Recall France is divided into departments from time of revolution. One solution to problem of small overseas areas has been to declare that they are parts of metropolitan France, on the model of Algeria. In fact they do elect deputies to the French Assembly. There are still problems in France's empire - e.g. disputes in New Caledonia btw the French Settlers and the Kanaks.

E. Effects at Home

Right wing bloc of former pied-noirs. Large immigrant population. Determination to keep up importance of France against the "Anglo-Saxon" powers.

III. The End of the British Empire

A. Dominions

Old "white" powers always had self government. Their independence was recognized in the Statute of Westminster 1931. They were called "Dominions" The Queen still reigns there - Canada, Australia, Newfoundland [Later united with Canada], New Zealand, South Africa - will come back to this.

B. India

1. The End of the Raj 1947

Gandhi and the Congress Party

  • -Experience in South Africa
  • -Non-Violence
  • But still nationalism

b. Chandra Bose and the INA

c. Hindus and Muslims

Muslims had higher prestige for a long time but a minority.

d. Jinna and "Pakistan" "Land of the Pure"

e. Partition

Mass exchange of populations

2. Modern India

Modern Democracy, but dominated by one family, the >Nehru-Gandhis

Population growth

Disputes with Pakistan over Jammu and Kashmir, and East Bengal

3. Muslim India becomes Pakistan, a Muslim state: has been democratic for much of the time. Problem of East and West Pakistan -attempted genocide in 1971

4. East Pakistan becomes Bangladesh -- the poorest state in the world. Huge population, with no security. Cut off from larger Indian whole

5. Ceylon becomes Sri Lanka - 1948

Tamils imported by British to Run Admin. Now racial disputes btw Tamils and Sinhalese

6. Burma -1948 - becomes independent and closes itself off from the world.

C. The Middle East - Israel

  • -Palestine Mandate
  • -Zionism - what it is.
  • -Pre-War Conflict
  • -The Holocaust
  • -The Haganah and Irgun
  • -The Arab Legion
  • -War 1947-148
  • -May 148 - Yishuv declare Independence
  • -War 1956, 1967, 1973. + Lebanon

D. Suez - 1956- the End of the British Empire

Egypt had been a UK colony, with its own king. Became independent in the 1930s. President Gamel Abdul Nasser - Arab nationalist President. 1956 - nationalizes Suez Canal. UK, France and Israel Invade. US objects. UK and France had to withdraw. Showed UK was not in same league as US and USSR anymore.

E. Africa and South Africa

1. Africa

Britain consciously prepared some countries for independence

Ghana - 1957, Nigeria 1960

Other places tried to keep control, but forced to yield to nationalist pressure

-Mau Mau rebellion in Kenya

2. Rhodesia

  • Whites in South want control.
  • No settlement
  • Zambia and Malawi become independent
  • 1966 UDI [Unilateral Declaration of Independence] by Smith. Civil war.
  • Zimbabwe in 1979

3. South Africa

  • A dominion - UK had no right of internal control.
  • Population -
    • Afrikaaners - old Dutch
    • Anglos - had fought Afrikaaners in 1900s
    • Blacks - vast majority
    • Coloreds
    • Indians
  • Nationalist Party wins power 194
  • PM Voerwoerd
  • Apartheid (practiced in US South at the time). Recently ended.
  • Leaders: Bishop Tutu, Nelson Mandela, PM de Klerk

F. Northern Ireland

  • Ireland Independent 1921
  • NI 60% Protestant, 40% papist
  • Bad rule by Prot. majority.
  • Desire for unification chez Catholics.
  • Unresolved conflict.

IV. Smaller Empires

A. Belgium and the  Congo

B.. Holland and Indonesia

Forced from Indonesia in 1950. Generally corrupt regime.

C. Portuguese Possessions

Brazil - in 19th C.

Angola - 1975: Marxist MPLA and Unita still fight it out.

Mozambique - 1975 - after a bloody guerrilla war led by Freelimo. South African backed civil war which laid waste to the country.

East Timor - Taken over by Indonesia -- Major case of genocide currently going on there.

V. Economic Dominance of the West Vs. New Economic Powers

  • Neo-Colonialism
  • France and Africa
  • Europe as a trading block.

Pacific Rim and Japan

Growth of Japan since World War II is phenomenal. In 1970 this also effects Hong Kong, Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore. In US, California has been leading state in the nation economically. People speak of the Pacific rim becoming the center of world politics. This probably depends on the future of China, Don't write the Atlantic powers off just yet.

As the West (US, Europe and Japan) uses up resources Third World countries, have flexed the power they have due to possession of resources. OPEC was very powerful in the 1970s. In 1989 the Third World is in debt to the West, and their is a net loss of capital from the poor countries to the rich. Banks could easily be destabilized. At the moment this is not a factor in politics but it almost certainly will become so - and it effects the Pacific rim as much as the West.

VI. The Cold War Begins

World War II killed as many as 40 million people. Europe was devastated, as was much of the East. There were conscious efforts to rebuild after the War

  • The United Nations - international peace. 
  • Rebuilding the West - The Marshall Plan - 1947

BUT the messy end of WWII led to the Cold War -- a superpower conflcit over Europe, but with the main European states on the periphery!

The Ending of the War and the Post War Settlement

A. The Allies in 1945

USA, UK - main western allies, Also France. Plus the USSR. Despite ideological difference they fought the war together. Churchill and Stalin were always hostile. Roosevelt and Truman saw that the allies would not work together after the war, but they did try.

B. Summits - The Division of Europe

During the War politics was less important than defeating Germany and Japan, Politics were conducted at a series of meetings of leaders - summits. These summits involved compromises on all sides, but ultimately no satisfactory arrangements were agreed on, and the modern world is a result of events rather than plans. The main area of concern was what was to happen to Eastern Europe. The UK had gone to war for Poland, but equally the USSR had been invaded from this direction.

Stalin's aims - to kep Russia's gains plus some security. He looked for an old fashioned Russian sphere of influence to create this.

Churchill - to keep Russia as weak as possible, To maintain the British Empire. He was pragmatic about the idea of spheres of influence.

Roosevelt - to make the worlds available to American business. To get rid of spheres and such old imperialist notions - outside of Latin America of course. He looked for security to an international organization.

1. The Atlantic Charter - August 1941

Roosevelt and Churchill met in 1941 on a ship off Newfoundland. Before the US was officially in the War. They agreed a set of principles on which to fight the war. This was to become the basis for the UN.

2. Tehran - 1943

Churchill, Stalin and Roosevelt. The West promised to open a new front in Europe - in the west. This effectively left the East to Russia. It was probably a military necessity. Attacking from the South would have meant attacking Germany through the Alps.

3. Moscow - October 9, 1944

Churchill and Stalin. It looked like Stalin was going to get the whole of Eastern Europe. Churchill in Moscow agreed that Stalin could have a spheres of influence in the Balkans, but that the West would have one as well. But the US was hostile to spheres of influence. Also Stalin wanted to dismember Germany and extract reparations. US and UK were prepared to allow the USSR safe borders, but Stalin wanted a communist Eastern Europe.

4. Yalta - February 1945

Churchill, Stalin, Roosevelt The US wanted the USSR in the Pacific War. It was agreed that European states were to have independent governments and elections. This was the US's main insistence. However, it was also agreed that such governments should be friendly to Russia. The two things just do not go together, and Stalin interpreted in the light of his Moscow meeting with Churchill.

5. Potsdam - July 1945

Truman, Attlee (replaces Churchill halfway through), and Stalin. Truman came to power April 12 1945. Truman was rougher with the Russians - e.g. his lecture to Molotov on April 23 on the subject of Poland. Potsdam sets modern map of Europe until 1989. Truman let Stalin take eastern Poland. Poland got a large chunk of Eastern Germany. Germany was divided into 4 zones. Why did Truman let Stalin get this amount of control? Russian troops were already 30 miles west of Berlin and Allied troops were still stuck in the Ardennes and it was not realized how fast the Allies were going to advance in the West at the end of the war.

Revisionists: Some historians have argued that Truman knew about the Bomb and so was determined to let Stalin have what he wanted at Potsdam, and then forces him to give it up by using the bomb as a threat. The problem with this argument is that the US pulled 2.5 million troops from Europe immediately after the war, and never did threaten Russia overtly with the bomb. It is still however a possible interpretation.

6. Europe Divided. The Summits did not work, but they were an attempt to work things out. However, the divisions they high-lighted became the basis for the Cold War.

All the divisions were supposed to be temporary. It has in fact never been changed. There was never a treaty like Versailles that provided a wrap up to WW2.

C. The United Nations

One permanent body was set up - the UNO

1. Origins

  • a. Woodrow Wilson's idea of the League of Nations, which Roosevelt supported.
  • b. A general desire for a more peaceful way of settling disputes than war.
  • c. The Atlantic Charter.
  • d. The victorious allies who were its first members.

2. First Meeting - San Francisco - April 1945

3. New York chosen as HQ, partly to make sure the US would support the new UN, unlike the League of Nations.

4. The UN Charter

  • Aims -Collective security
  • An end to colonialism - made untenable by Hitler.

5. Post War Membership

US, UK, France, USSR. China - in security council

Most other nations join.

6. The UN: Success or Failure?

Many commentators have been skeptical. t has had some successes, particularly in its affiliated organizations - WHO, and UNESCO -- but there has been less success diplomatically. It has averted some wars, been a important negotiator in others, and provided a legitimacy to very many peace efforts and agreements.

VII. Cold War Conflicts

The flip side of attempts at cooperation is the Cold War: US vs. USSR, East, vs. West.

One way of looking at this is that it was not really an ideological conflict, rather a dispute between two major powers (empires). Ideology was not entirely absent from feelings of righteousness on either side. But it should be realized that the major difference for many people outside the US and the USSR is not in their foreign policy, but in how they treat their own citizens. Many textbooks are not very good on this period. The attitudes of the textbooks reflect cold war attitudes rather than make clear their causes. I am going to highlight a few themes rather than attempt to give a sketch chronology.

A. Events Leading to the Cold War

1. The Western feeling that Stalin was cheating, and that Communism was expanding.

a. Stalin occupies Eastern Europe

  • Poland 1945
  • Bulgaria and Romania - 1945
  • Hungary - 1947
  • Czechoslovakia - 1948

b. The Berlin Blockade - June 1948-May 1949 -- effective western response to it.

c. China falls to Mao, Oct 1948-Jan 1950

2. Stalin had grounds for distrusting the West

  • a. USSR was excluded from Italian settlement in 1944, despite very strong Communist Party there.
  • b. Lend-Lease shipments stopped to Russia, in May 1945. It was a congressional requirement, but it upset Russia.
  • c. The Marshall Plan was seen as attacking the USSR's area of power in Europe.

3. Churchill's "Iron Curtain" Speech. Fulton Missouri, March 5th 1946

4. The Truman Doctrine: Containment of Communism: This upset the USSR and made it feel encircled.

5. Who was to Blame?

  • The USA - Revisionist view
  • The USSR - older view

It all depends on whether you see the USSR as fundamentally different from other states, as a state promoting world Leninism, or whether you see it as a power in the Tsarist tradition, pursuing its own security. It could be both. But also, the US is an imperialist power, in terms of the economic power it wields, and the military power it has used in Latin America. These are, at the moment, political as well as historical questions.

B. The Cold War at Home

  • 1. McCarthyism
  • 2. Political Parties and Response to Cold War
  • 3. Defense Issues in National elections
  • 4. The Military Industrial Complex.
  • 5. Economic Expansion in US (Good Keynesian Reasons)
  • 6. Economic Stagnation in USSR. (Keynesianism doesn't work)

C. Themes in the Cold War

1. The Nuclear and Conventional Arms Race

  • USA - A-Bomb 1945, Jul
  • USA - H-Bomb 1952, Nov
  • USSR - A-Bomb 1949, Sep
  • USSR - H-Bomb 1953, Aug [By Andrei Sakharov]
  • USSR - ICBMs in 1957

Multi-warhead missiles

Mid-range missiles

From MAD to SDI - Changing strategies in arms usage.

2. The Space Race - Subsidiary to Arms Race

  • USSR - first rocket 1957 - Yuri Gagarin - first man in space 1961
  • USA - First Man on the Moon - 1969 - First reusable space vehicle
  • Some cooperation in the 1970's Skylab-Solyut link up
  • Space exploration is still in its infancy.

2. Alliances

NATO : North Atlantic Treaty March-Aug 1949

The first US "entangling alliance". Fundamental change in US foreign policy.

The Warsaw Pact, May 1955

3. Close Calls

There have only been a few occasions when the two superpowers actually came closed to war. Most conflicts/wars have been displaced. [explain term.]

  • a. Berlin Wall - Aug 1961
  • b. Cuban Missile Crisis - 1962

4. Cold War Battles - Displaced Wars

a. Greece - British, the US vs. Communists.

Stalin allows Western victory, as per agreements.

b. Korea 1951-53

The UN repels a N. Korean attack on the South. But goes to far, so Chinese get involved. Height of anti-communism im US.

c. Vietnam and Cambodia - see above

d. Cuba - Bay of Pigs 1961

e. Chile - Allende and Pinochet

f. Central America -

El Salvador

Nicaragua - US supported Somoza

g. Angola

h. Afghanistan

i. The Middle East

j. Not all Third world wars are of this nature, and there have been wars about local issues, e.g. India vs. Pakistan, India vs. China. Many wars in Africa.

5. Moral and Ideological Basis of Propaganda

On both sides the Cold War has been presented as a battle of good and evil.

  • -All communist polemic, up to and inc. Gorbachev.
  • -Anti-communism and "evil empire' theorists in the US.
  • McCarthyism compromised all the US stands for.

VIII. Superpower Politics during the Cold War - Europe on the Periphery

The superpowers, although neither conceives of itself as such, because they are not colonial and have largely contiguous territory, are both world empires. A quick overview of their postwar history.

A. The Ascendancy of the United States

1. Economics

US was the only major power not to undergo war damage. It was absolutely dominant in the 50's and 60's. Investments abroad. Multinationals invented in the US. By mid-60s, other countries were recovering. Especially Japan and West Germany, which became major industrial powers, with the rest of Europe tagging along. The US is still the worlds biggest economy, but not so much due to its owe failure, but other success, it is now less dominant than it once was. The US is richer today than ever before, but its relative position has declined.

2. American Politics

a. The Fifties: Truman and Eisenhower

  • 1. McCarthyism and anti-communism
  • 2. Growing Economy
  • 3. Stability

b. The Sixties: Kennedy, Johnson and Nixon

  • 1. Civil Rights, and the New Left
  • 2. Changes in morals
    • The Warren Court
    • Women's Rights
    • Lesbian and Gay Rights
  • 3. Move from class to identity politics

c. The Seventies: Nixon, Ford and Carter

  • 1. The Vietnam War
  • 2. Détente
  • 3. Watergate
  • 4. Feelings of a loss of power

d. The Eighties: Reagan and Bush

  • 1. Resurgence of the Right
  • 2. Military expenditure and Cold War II, encouraged by the Afghanistan War.
  • 3. Yuppies

B. The Ascendancy of Russia

1. Economy

Rebuilding in Poland, East Germany and Russia. Fairly successful. No foreign Aid. Agriculture has been, especially in the USSR, a disaster.

2. Politics - Stalin to Gorbachev

  • a. Stalin - Postwar. Became Paranoid
  • b. Nikita Krushchev. Reforms then deposition.
  • c. Brezhnev - stagnation
  • d. Gorbachev - Glasnost and Perestroika
  • e. Yeltsin - and Radical Reform.

3. Eastern Europe

  • a. Control Established
  • b. Poland 1956
  • c. Hungary 1956
  • d. Czechoslovakia - the Prague Spring - 1968
  • e. Poland - 1971
  • Poland - 1980's Solidarity
  • f. 1989

IX. The New Europe - Centrist Politics and Unification

Now we are returning to European Political History, and a survey of modern politics in the heartland of Western Civilization.

The End of World War II is once again the starting point. Differences with period after WWI. 1945 a real break with the past. There has been a much more optimistic view of the world in the west since then with less harping about the "world we have lost".This may not be realistic given the Holocaust and the arms race.

The Western Democracies after the War

1. General Themes

Most European countries move towards welfare states. This was seen as good and fair in itself and also a way of preventing the social conditions which had encouraged fascism.

2. The Right

Christian Democracy in Germany and Italy, not in France. Catholic parties in origin which were not conservative in a nationalistic way. They were for state intervention to help the poor, but opposed to socialism and supportive of capitalism. They retain this character now, even though they are often thought of as conservative.

3. The Left

Democratic Socialism in Labor party in UK and SDP in Germany (+ Holland, Norway and Sweden). These tend to be mass parties, related to trade unions, and looking to interests of working people without compromising civil liberties.

France and Italy - there are socialist parties in these countries but they are parties of intellectuals that did not originate in the working class. In Italy the Communist Party is the mass party of the workers, and despite its name it is a moderate party, in some respects to the right of the UK Labor Party. In France, the CPF was the workers party but it has now been destroyed electorally by the socialists.

4. Conservative parties tend to vary from country to country.

A. Britain

1. Labor Government 1945-1951

People fearful of another war. Also felt a need for a new society. Clement Attlee was PM. Ideas of Beveridge and John Maynard Keynes. The belief that the War had shown you could organize for success, so you could organise for an end to poverty.

Domestic Policies

  • Nationalization
  • Welfare State
  • National Health Service

Foreign Policies

Begins decolonization - India

2. Conservative Government 1951-1964

Basically kept the same policies as Labor. British Conservative Party is about power, and it is not in general ideological. Mrs. Thatcher is a recent phenomenon.

This was a period of rebuilding the economy. Not as successful as Germany - old structures remained in place.

Further end to Empire

Suez 1956

US did not back UK. Could no longer see itself in top rank of powers. British probably now underestimate the importance of the country in the world.

3. 1964-1979

  • Period of alternation of governments and Economic crises.
  • Discovery of North Sea Oil.
  • Joining the EEC
  • Outbreak of troubles in Northern Ireland 1969.
  • BUT also on up side.
  • Best years of the BBC
  • Cultural bomb in writing and theater - through state support.

4. Conservatives in Power 1979-

  • Margaret Thatcher - an Ideological conservative (but Thatcher is not of the US "moral majority" type - she alwasy supported free access to abortion).
    • Attempts to role back the welfare atmosphere of past four decades.
    • Successful dealing with inflation and deficit - now in fact has a huge surplus.
    • -by cutting back on welfare state
    • -by selling out nationalized industries.
    • Growth of Yuppies.
  • High unemployment
  • tax cuts to benefit the rich
  • Police given more power.
  • How she kept power-
    • Falklands War 1982 saved her from defeat. Was the ost powerful politician sine WWII in UK.
    • Labor party split with SDP. And internal divisions.
    • Naked appeal to self interest of middle class and homeowners at expense of the poor.
  • Fall of Thatcher.
    • Conservatives feared losing election over Poll Tax. John Major - wins again 1992.

B. France

Has been troubled politically.

Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970)

  • Leader of Free French
  • Not really a democrat - he thought parties divide the nation.
  • Gaullism - distinctive French conservatism. It is the most nationalistic conservatism in modern western Europe. It sees a special place for France and French culture [which is of course one of the greatest in the world]. It is less interested in economic management than France itself.

Fourth Republic and Algeria

Opposed by De Gaulle as to divisive. Lots of governments - 19 - 1948-1958

Algeria - the situation overturned the Govt. De Gaulle recalled. Creates new constitution giving President almost monarchical power. Confirmed by referendum. (cf. Louis Napoleon.)

Then withdraws from Algeria - shows De Gaulle as as realist, more than just a right winger. De Gaulle Faced much opposition for his policies.

Fifth Republic

1. Strong President - 7 year term / Bicameral Legislature.

Propensity for French politicians to hold many seats at different level of government.

A whole series of parties

  • -Gaullists
  • -Republicans and Liberals (on the Right in France)
  • -Socialists, -Communists

2. De Gaulle

  • Opposed to US dominance - reject UK from EEC. Withdrew French Forces form NATO command 1967.
  • 1968 - De Gaulle put down Student riots

3. Georges Pompidou 1969-1974

4. Valery Giscard D'Estaing (b, 1924) 1974-1980

  • A Republican rather than a Gaullist, but he governed in coalition with Gaullists.
  • Allowed UK to join EEC
  • Technocrat - Economic growth
  • Tendency to intervene abroad - e.g. in Chad.

5. Francois Mitterand (b. ) 1980-199?

  • Reorganized the Socialist Party
  • Overtook the Communists in elections/
  • 1980 Socialists won.
  • People tired of technocracy and lack of democracy. People no longer afraid of a communist dominated government. Liberal reforms + nationalizations. More pro-American than Gaullists All French political groups want France to keep Nuclear weapons.

6. 1986 - Right wing win in Parliament

  • Cohabitation of Mitterand with Right.
  • 1987 - Socialist regain control but are very moderate.

C. Germany

1. Occupation 1945

  • Very hard living conditions.
  • Denazification - Nuremburg Trials -even reconstruction of the Church had to be done.
  • Allies create a state in the West - Bundesrepublik Deutschland/Federal Republic of Germany 1949

2. Constitution

  • Division into Lander.
  • Capital at Bonn
  • Bicameral House
  • Limited PR to give fair distribution of seats, but >to keep out parties that get less than 5% of the vote.
  • Ceremonial President
  • Executive Chancellor

3. Economic Expansion

Britain sent it food in 1946. Helped by Marshall Plan 1949 Became part of EEC 1957.

Old companies lived on - Volkswagen, Krupp. AEG. The nation put all its effort into economic growth. It had no political role for decades. There was an economic miracle Now BRD is most powerful economy in Europe.

4. Politics

Effectively only non-nazis have been allowed to play a role. But also left wingers have been excluded. Even from teaching - Berufsverbote. Christian Democrats + CSU of Bavaria 1949-1966 Led by Konrad Adenauer. Adenauer is the major architect of post war recovery and rehabilitation of West Germany. He always opposed the separation of Germany,and would not talk to east European countries.

Social Democrats - Bad Godesburg Conference - renounced revolution. Take Power 1966. Prove effective managers of a capitalist economy. Willy Brandt and Helmut Schmidt leaders. SDP has open up to eastern Europe - Ostpolitik from 1970 onwards.

Free Democrats - always coalition partners in BRD governments. Basically Free Market liberals with a social conference.

Welfarism on a lavish scale in Germany - Very good national health service.

1982 - CDP and CSU under Helmut Kohl return to power. Still basically moderate, but currently low in polls.

The Greens have become important in last decade - environmental and nuclear issues are big considerations in Germany.

D. Italy

Christian Democrats have been dominant in coalition after coalition. Communists major opposition party. Adopted "Eurocommunism" Economic boom in Nth of Italy.

E. Spain and Portugal

See textbook.

F. Formation of the European Union

The important thing to realize is that this is the most unified western Europe has been since the Roman Empire, excepting Napoleon and Hitler. Will it work?

Desire for a New Europe

Destruction of 2 world wars led people to look for a better way. Since the War Europe has moved towards integration. This is a response to the two superpowers. Economically and in population Europe together is larger than either of them, but divided it is weak.

The process has been mainly economic. Politically no one state would give up sovereignty [ask what that means]. i.e. the Council of Europe 1949 was never an important body. Military integration happened under NATO, to which most governments are committed. However, France remains partially independent, and NATO is US not European dominated.

Judicial Unity - The European Court of Human Rights was established at the Hague. All governments subscribe to it, and alter laws by its decisions, but it only deals with a few cases. Main success was going to be economic unity.

Leading Europeanists - wanted united Europe economically as a prelude to political unity.

  • -Robert Schuman (1886-1963), a French Foreign Minister.
  • -Konrad Adenauer ((1876-1967), BRD Chancellor
  • -Jean Monnet (1885-1981) a French Civil Servant.

The Process

1. Coal and Steel bind France and Germany

France, West Germany, Italy, Benelux [explain term] join European Coal and Steel Community 1951 -limited remit but this was a vital economic sector. Ties up the industries of these countries. Now they could not go to war with each other. It is economically impossible. The ECSC made more ambitious integration possible.

2. The Treaty of Rome 1957

Same groups as ECSC - France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands,, Luxembourg.

Creates the EEC (European Economic Community, aka the "Common Market"). The elimination of all tariffs, free flow of capital, free exchange of Labor. Beginning of common economic policies - e.g. on Transport, agriculture, even in law.

3. The EEC - the Six

EEC was run by a High Commission appointed by political leaders of each country. Also a Council of Ministers. The High Commission has introduced massive reforms and standardization throughout member countries. Centers of EEC were Brussels, Luxembourg and Strasbourg. EEC was very successful in 1960s. Major problem was when one country refused to go along with the others. This was often France, which to British eyes, seemed to see the EEC has hers to dominate.

4. EFTA 1959

UK, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Switzerland, Austria, Portugal. Organized by UK. Not successful. All but UK had small economies.

5. The Nine

Britain after refusing to become part of EEC in 1957 tried to join, in 1963 and 1967. De Gaulle objected - he thought UK was too friendly with USA. Many in UK opposed joining - felt EEC was undemocratic since no control could be exercised by the people over the official in Brussels. 1973 UK, Denmark and Ireland also joined the EEC. Norway was going to but backed out after a referendum. EEC was less successful in 1970s, mainly because of the worse world economy caused by inter alia Oil disputes. Creation of an elected European Parliament 1979 - First time ever in Europe's history. This body now claims some prestige.

6 Spain, Greece and Portugal

1982 - Greece, Portugal and Spain joined. First time poor countries (apart from Ireland) had joined.

Problems of EEC/European Union

1. The Common Agricultural Policy

Agricultural policy is central. EEC worked by giving people subsidies to produce. This created an enormous boom in production. But especially in France inefficiency was kept going. EEC officially tried to get people off the land, but the French farmers resist and have great influence on govt. Other countries do not like paying for it.

2. Decline of Sovereignty

EEC decides things like weights and measures. E.G. UK dropped imperial system in favor of metric weights and measures. EEC has been dropped in favor of European Community-EC There is now a currency unit - the Ecu. This loss of sovereignty upsets many.

1992

In 1992 most barriers came down and one market is on its way to being established. Realization of an old Enlightenment dream. Not entirely good. No way of people controlling this supranational body. There are no Europe wide political groups. The EC will be the largest developed market in the world. Possibly Europe is not done for just yet.

X. Eastern Europe

Has had a separate development under USSR domination. It has had some economic success but more striking have been the political problems. See textbook for details. Note the huge environmental problems.

XI. Modern Political Ideas

The 1960s and  the New Left

This topic is not covered in textbooks, but they do suggest that criticism of society is part of what distinguishes Western Civilization. The critics today are the people in the New Left, and so we are going to look at them.

A. 1968

  • Student revolts at Berkeley and Columbia
  • Students Revolt in Paris - brings down the government.
  • Czechoslovakia - the Prague Spring.

B. Ideas of the New Left.

Dislike of Stalinism as much as Capitalism especially after the Soviet invasions of Hungary and Czechoslovakia. A feeling that workers were no longer a revolutionary group but had been brought into the system. A new group of concerns - around the concept of oppression.

C. Trotskyists. Some looked to the ideas of Leon Trotsky - a form of Marxism officially opposed by the USSR. This opposed USSR as "state capitalism" and the the USA and "imperialist".

D. One Issue Groups

Most people in the New Left are not affiliated with a particular ideology, or are eclectic about positions they adopt. Rather a is series of connected political movements. One issue groups - especially important in the US which has no ideological parties. Women's groups, Gay Groups, Campaigns for Nuclear Disarmament, END.  This is especially the case in UK and West Germany, but similar groups now make up the Left all over Europe.

E. Feminism - A Critique of Patriarchy and Sexual Politics

The background of the Black Civil Rights Movement in the US was very important. Women in the US and the UK worked during the War. Government attempted to get them abk in the home in the 1950s - to give jobs to the boys. By the 1960's very many were dissatisfied. The Pill made having children a matter of choice. Very many women began to go out to work after marriage, reversing the peacetime trend to stay at home that began in the late 19th century. France - Simone de Beauvoir The Second Sex argued for the rights of Women, USA - Betty Freidan The Feminine Mystique -- The awful life of a woman stuck in a suburban home. Feminist ideas spread very fast. Middle Class women began demanding equal pay, child care and an end to job discrimination. There was a 1970s radicalization of feminism, as writers like Andrea Dworkin and Mary Daly tried to come up with an understanding of women's social situation. The issues of rape, abortion, and pornography were examined. Some women in Europe and America began to feel that men were impossible to live with because of the way they were brought up. Most of the ills of the world were blamed on patriarchy and patriarchal structures. An attempt was made to analyze these structures. Feminism now is generalized. Even Catholic Church is officially opposed to any discrimination. The problem is making the words spoken by so many men into realities, and in changing social attitudes that allow men to feel it OK to hassle women in the street.

What do people associate with the word "feminist"? Why?

F. Lesbian and Gay Liberation - A Critique of Sexual Mores

Builds on women's liberation. Basically a US movement that spread to Europe. There were Homophile groups in the 1950s and 1960s >-Homophile League ay Columbia in 1968 -The Stonewall Riots June 28th 1968 -There has since been a massive growth in gay political groups in Europe and America.

AIDS was expected to destroy this movement, but in fact the number of gay organizations had grown. This movement would seem to be a permanent part of the next 50 or so years.

G. Pacifism/Anti-Nuclearism - A Critique of War.

This is another aspect of the New Left. Many western Europeans feel that they are in the firing line for superpower weapons. The are strong anti-nuke movements in most European countries. Socialist analysis is directed against the military/industrial aspects of weapons production. Feminist analysis is directed against the idea the weapons are toys for the boys, but that the toys are getting dangerous. This movement has been sidelined by the end of the Cold War.

H. Ecology/The Greens - A Critique of Growth

Die Greuner in Germany, Green Party in the UK, Environmental movements all over. Some vegetarians The Club of Rome: The Limits to Growth. possibly the most Radical new political force. Unlike wither socialism or capitalism this is an anti-growth movement. Sometimes it is not even socialist. hey want a steady state economy as they see industrialization destroying the world.

New Left Politics?

The New Left is not one united movement. It is an Amalgam of various interests and enthusiasm. Not all people supporting one aspect support the rest. However, it is a good indicator of trying to find radical solutions to new problems, and also of the current lack of a unified vision. It does carry on the Western tradition of criticism of society from within society begun by Socrates.

The New Right - Conservatives

A few word about modern European conservatism. There has been a revival in the past few years, both of conservative political parties, and conservative ideology (reminder: goes back to Edmund Burke).

A. Business not Empire

Modern European conservatism comprises two parts. -Those conservatives who look above all to free enterprise, and the growth of business. They are not necessarily concerned about moralism. They are also not particularly nationalistic, which is a great change from the interwar years. They are really 19th century liberals under another name. There are also many people who yearn for "traditional values" [that in fact never existed]. However, it is important to realize that in Europe the "religious right" is not important; for instance many members of the British Conservative Party support abortion.

New Right Politics?

Conservatives, like the left, are critical of society. In particular, they criticize the social democracy welfarism of modern Europe. But in this critical mode they are just as much part of the western tradition as the left.

XII. Big Science

A. Since 1945, this has been a period of tremendous scientific growth which gets ever faster. Science has built on and advanced the discoveries of the first half of the century - relativity and quantum mechanics.

B. Science is now characterized by high government spending. It is just too expensive, for the most part, for an individual to act work alone. Where the government does not pay, big companies do.

This "big" science is related to military expenditure. The US has been at the forefront, as the richest nation in the world, but other countries have made significant contributions - USSR, Britain, France, China, Japan. Many "American" scientists were immigrants, especially Jews. [Ask class why this might be? Suggest it requires a great commitment by scientists to hard, "useless", academic from early on.]

C. Scientists as a Class

Scientists work now not as individuals but as part of groups. Problems are too big and too expensive to leave to one "genius". But this means there is now a class of scientists. Worth following in non-specialist magazines like Scientific American.

D. Physics - the First "Big" Science

1. The Manhattan Project was the first big science project. Due to fear of a Nazi A-Bomb.

2. The physicists often exiles from Nazism.

3. Military interest has really pushed physics

-for general weapon development

-H-Bombs

-More missiles

-MAD and SDI

4. Developments in Theoretical Physics

  • Big Bang Cosmology
  • New fundamental particles
  • Unified Field Theories
  • See, for a very simple discussion,
  • Stephen Hawkins A Brief History of Time

5. Space Travel - the Moon and Mars are in our reach. alpha Centuri is not.

E. Medicine - The Other Major Fundamental Area of Advance

1. Pre-War

Septicemia, diphtheria, TB, Typhoid, Typhus, Whooping Cough - all killed people.

2. Development of Antibiotics

Penicillin - able to treat septicemsia, syphilis, and all bacterial diseases.

3. Development of New Vaccines

Smallpox Vaccine had been around for some time. Now, vaccines were developed for Polis, whooping cough. Smallpox was wiped off the planet in the 1980s.

4. Other Drugs/Advanced treatments developed.

  • Insulin for diabetes
  • Chemotherapy
  • Radiotherapy

5. New Surgical Techniques

  • Transplants - kidneys, hearts, lungs, corneas

6. Biology's and Genetic Research

The Discovery of DNA

  • As great a discovery as anything in physics.
  • Current research on the the Human Genome.

Current Research (Should happen in your lifetime)

  • -Cancer cures
  • -Treatment for viral diseases - research due to AIDS epidemic [discuss significance re peoples' feelings about infection.]
  • -Possible treatments for genetic disorders, using virus to input new genes into living people.

7. Effects of New Medicine on People's Lives

Reduces fear of disease for millions.

For first time in history people were not afraid of infectious disease - although AIDS has changed that, at least for a while.

-BUT this medical help is not available to millions more in LAAA, where simple diarrhea remains the major killer.

F. Technology

Unlike physics which works at the edge of scientific knowledge, practical science, or technology, applies what we already know to new directions. It has transformed how we live since 1945 in incalculable ways.

1. The Transistor

  • -basically an electronic switch
  • -Change from valve technology
  • -later integrated circuits, then chips
  • -basic to many consumer goods
  • -Consumer goods illustrate a new development in capitalism.

2. Air Travel

The Jet Engine made fast air travel more common. The Helicopter and Hovercraft were also invented.

3. Television. Invented before WWII, but only widespread afterwards. It dominates life in many countries. It may possibly the single greatest change in how people spend their time. It has effected most noticeably Politics and Entertainment. But also patterns of eating, consuming, and family life.

4. Consumer Goods have proliferated. Better telephones, Automatic cars, washing machines, refrigerators, stereos, CDs (= Capitalist way of making more money in a saturated market), VCRs, walkmans -the list is endless. This has transformed work, what we work to buy, and housework.

5. Computers

Alan Turing and the Enigma Machine.

Valves, then transistors, then integrated circuits, now microchips.

Science and the Future

We have been looking at the great material benefits that science has brought us in the last 40 years or so. The important thing to realize is just how important science is to our civilization, both in its great intellectual endeavors, and in practical life. It has taken humanity's control, and possibility of losing control of its environment to new heights. But science is not the only thing which defines modern culture.

XIII. A Late 20th Century States of Mind?

A. Commentators point out there has not been one culture or state of mind in the 20th century, rather a variety. The process of changes and disruptions has been continuous - the disintegration of the Enlightenment synthesis began before 1900, with Freud etc. But two world wars and the abuse of technology have intensified these developments. We are living in a major developmental period.

B. Diffusion of Knowledge and Culture

More books are published than ever before. Massive amounts of information are created and pushed. More people go to school than ever before. Fordham is bigger than any pre-1900 University. There are more scientists alive now than in all of previous history. Also more historians, economists, literary critics, etc. All this is a function of the greater number of students, and hence the wealth created by the industrial revolution.

C. Modern Creativity

1. Arts

Europe has been en fete since 1950 -- New concert halls, galleries, museums and theatres

2. Youth Culture

Drawing on UK and US popular music. The invention of the Teenager -- Cults: Teddy Boys, Mods, Rockers, Skinheads, Punks.

3. Philosophy -

1. Existentialism

  • Nietzsche
  • Soren Kierkegaard - Christianity to be seized with passion
  • Martin Heidigger 1889-1976 - Being and Time
  • Albert Camus 1913-1960 - The Plague, The Outsider
  • Jean Paul Sartre 1905-1980 - Nausea, Being and Nothingness

They often do not agree with each other,but they all have problems with human existence, and have a lack of faith in reason. [Reason and science had produces war and genocide]. Truth for them is to do with experience.

2. Post-Modernism

  • Michel Foucault
  • Notion of Language creating reality

Web Exercise

Your last web exercise is simple.  Find a current news article in any serious online newspaper, and explain how and why what you have learned in this course makes it possible for you to explain the story.

Discussion Questions

What is "decolonization"? Does it really represent a decline in the power of Western states in the world?

In what ways did the Cold War provide stability in western society.

How does western European politics differ from modern American politics?

What opportunities does modern science offer? What dangers does it present?

General Questions on the Course

What did you get out of the course?

What would you like covered differently?

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created 9/11/1998 : revised 6/14/1999