Shaping of the Modern World

 

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Brooklyn College Core Curriculum:
The Shaping of the Modern World

Section 2: The Ancien Regime: Absolutism and the Modern State

Introduction: This Week's Goals

This week we look at a world of kings, courtiers and philosophical defenses of kings. It all seems very remote, but is it? Our goals this week are:

  • To understand the problems that European governments faced in the 16th and 17th centuries, so that we can grasp what sort of of solutions were tried.
  • To see beneath the glitter of kings and robes and nobles. But we also want to see what was the purpose of all that glitter.
  • To be able to explain the specific changes absolutist governments brought about.
  • To understand why these absolutist states were in many respects more "modern" than other countries that may have been freer.
  • To understand the spread of Absolutist government from France to Russia, Prussia and Austria.

Text

Kagan, 449-51, 463-76, 504-506, [optional, but recommended 513-18, 525-36]

Multimedia

Music

  • court music

Images

Sources

Outline

I. Introduction

A. The problem of political disintegration in 16-17th Centuries.

  • France - Wars of Religion
  • England - the English Revolution
  • Holy Roman Empire (Germany and Austria) - 30 Years War.

B. Causes of disintegration

  • Competition between the aristocracy and the monarchy - this was often the mainspring behind the religious wars.

C. Ways of Uniting States

Two alternatives evolved:

  • Constitutionalism and
  • Absolutism

we will be looking mainly at absolutism in this section.

Absolutism formed the immediate background to the French Revolution, but constitutionalism provided many of the ideas for that revolution. We might say that Absolutist governments were more "modern" and efficient than constitutional states, but that Constitutionalist political ideas were these ones with a  future.

D. Absolutism and Constitutionalism.

  • Nature of "isms". See Glossary for a discussion of words ending in "ism"

1. Definition of Constitutionalism

  • Constitutionalism does not require a written constitution, but does require a set of rules about government which government respects - it is not arbitrary.
  • It also implies a balance in power between the government and its subjects - this was provided in England by power of subjects in Parliament.
  • We will discuss what happened in England and Holland in the next class.

2. Definition of Absolutism

  • In contrast to Constitutionalism, Sovereignty - the power and right to rule, resides exclusively with the King and not the nobles nor any assembly. This represents a real change from later medieval reality.
  • The idea of the Divine Right of Kings became important in this context.
  • Note that in this period Government did not impinge on many areas at all, for instance social welfare to any great degree. Absolute Monarchs were limited in actual power and were not "totalitarian".

Absolutism was very practical - it developed modern ways of government to make its claims work:

  • State bureaucracies
  • Committee structures of government
  • Standing armies

II. Poland - A failed state

Poland is a good example of what could happen if the nobles became too powerful.

  • Poland was a very large state in Eastern Europe.
  • The "Noble Republic" - the nobles elected the kings.
  • Any noble could veto any law in the parliament.
  • Consequences?
    • Complete collapse of central government.
    • The enserfment of the peasant population for the profit of the nobles.
    • The eventual disappearance of Poland from map of Europe.

A result of no constitutionalism and no absolutism?

III. Spain - Absolutism Attempted

The dominant country of the late 16th century, based on military power and enormous wealth from the new world.

King Philip II (b. 1527-d.1598, ruled. 1556-1598) was the monarch. Although he faced challenges to his power from Aragon (along with Castile, one of the two  major parts of the Kingdom of Spain), from his viceroys in the New World, and from his own officials, it is possible to see some of the later marks of absolutism in his reign.

  • Centralizing control
  • Central source of authority
  • Attempted state control of the Church
  • Bureaucratic systems
  • The building of a new capital city and palace as the center of power [in this case Madrid and the Escorial palace].
  • Use of council/committee system of government.
  • Spain declined after 1600: due to economy and bad government.

IV. France - Absolutism Triumphant

What happened in France provided more of model for the rest of Europe than Spain, or England.

France's importance as a country was based on its wealth, its geographical centrality, the size of its population (the biggest in Europe), as well as its very influential culture.

A. French Wars of Religion and Henry IV

  • The Reformation in France. Calvinist.
  • Catholic and Protestant nobles use religion to challenged central government authority..
  • Lax and inefficient rulers.
  • Noble wars virtually destroyed the country
  • What was needed was a new approach to government. (If the goal was a stable country). *
  • Henry VI (1598-1610), formerly King of Navarre. His famous line was   "Paris is worth a mass" [when he became a Catholic so that could inherit the throne of  France].
  • Edict of Nantes 1598 quieted country. Allowed toleration to the Huguenots.

B. Louis XIII (1610-43)

Effective ruler Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642)

Richelieu's Actions:

  1. He broke power of nobility and made it clear there was only one law - the King's. However still very limited legal unity in the country.
    [cf. Stuarts where local law was in hands of JPs.]
    Estates General meats for last time in 1615.
  2. He began administrative reform and centralized control over regions. He sent out Intendents. [cf. the Stuarts lack of local control]
  3. He fought Habsburg Dynasty - made France a great power (fought for Protestants in Thirty Year's War)
  4. Richelieu also opposed Huguenots - as defiant of King's power and began the road to oppression. Removed their right to fortified towns.

C. Louis XIV (Ruled 1643-1715)

  1. Cardinal Mazarin (1602-1661) [Image Cardinal Mazarin]
    effective ruler at first - continues policies of Richelieu.
  2. The Fronde 1649-52
    - revolt by nobles sick of absolute claims. This had big psychological effect on Louis XIV. He was determined to be powerful
  3. Louis comes to power in 1661.
    His reign is the height of absolutism. "L'etat. c'est moi."
  4. Louis' conception of himself as King - and of the problems he faced.   [Image: Louis XIV and as the "Sun King"]
  5. Although egotistical he was not a madman.  He thought he had to work hard and let good sense act. But his "working hard" was a few hours a day.
  6. Government under Louis XIV
    It is often seen as one of the first modern governments.
    - its system of councils to control the real ruling of the country
    - Intendants - royal officials in provinces gives central control of the entire country.
    - Its establishment of a standing army which Louis used in a series of expensive wars. This gives him great power.
  7. Influence of Louis XIV's Government and Style
    Versailles and Louis' government were admired throughout Europe.
    French became the language of many courts - e.g. Russia (ref. Tolstoy: War and Peace). Copycat palaces were built all over Europe: Vienna/Schonbrunn, St. Petersburg, Berlin.
    [Images: Versailles: aerial view, garden, hall of mirrors, bedroom and Blenheim Palace, one of many imitations of Versailles]
  8. Louis XIV and Religion
    The Position of the Church as State within a State
    -Divine Right was important in Louis' ideas.
    -It is important to realize the power of the Church in France. It was like a state within in a state
    -largely independent of Rome
    -tax free
    -Church Courts had power over parts of life, for instance marriage and wills.
    -Louis supported the Church fervently.
    -Revocation of Edict of Nantes 1685
    -1/4 mill Protestants left - (New Rochelle)
  9. Absolutism and Religion
    Absolutism did not allow, in France, liberty of conscience. This affects French Enlightenment thinkers. There was anti-clericalism even from those who support monarchy. [cf.-anti-clericalism in French Revolution]
  10. Louis XIV' successors tried to maintain the same system.
    [Image Louis XV and Mdme de Pompadour, his mistress.]

Absolutist Fiscal Policy

  1. Important both in explaining how Europe came to expand overseas, and certain elements in the outbreak of the French Revolution.
  2. The main problem was that nobles would not pay tax. This was not solved. France remained under-taxed. So other solutions were sought.
  3. Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-1693) - Finance minister. Colbert's aim was to have a trade balance in France's favor - Mercantilism is name given to this policy of promoting trade..
    • It centralizes economy
    • Close government control.
    • Relieves the need for direct taxes.
    • Expansion abroad - emphasis on exports and getting bullion into the country.
    • Trade is needed especially by absolutist governments as it enables indirect taxes to be raised - which are necessary without parliaments.
  4. Worldwide Effects of Fiscal Policies
    • Expansion of Mercantile empires in India, North America and above all the West Indies. This was encouraged by governments.
    • Development of Slave trade.

The Theoretical Elaboration of Absolutism

Absolutism came into being as a practical way to control the state. But there were theoretical justifications.

  • Bishop Bousset (1627-1704) [Image: Bishop Bossuet]
    Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Scripture, 1679. He was tutor to Louis XIV's heir.
    -His basic justification was Divine Right: God makes a King absolutely sovereign.
  • Jean Domat, (1625-1696), in Public Law, 1697 attempted to set Absolutism in context of law of nature and law of God. [Discuss dangers of such a project]
  • Thomas Hobbes, in Leviathan, 1651, even though it was written earlier, provided a more modern justification based on Nature.
  • Other justifications were offered by later writers.
    -Voltaire praised Louis XIV as being an effective ruler.

Did Absolutism need to be justified?

  • Probably most of the French people accepted Absolutism because this type of rule brought peace after decades of civil war.

    • At this stage Nobility and Monarchy were the only players. It was the emergence of another class which was to be important in 1789.

VII. Absolutism in Other States

Some of the Older States Faded

The Holy Roman Empire (the state which nominally included Germany and surrounding areas) faded. So did Poland and the Ottoman Turkey.

Three new powers come to occupy central Europe in the 18th century.

  1. Austria
    Absolutism without a nation-state.
    Maria Theresa 1740-
  2. Prussia
    Prussia copied France but has its own distinctive character. Prussia became an important state under Frederick I (1688-1713). Military emphasis: the upper class become the officers in the army.
    -300 other states in Germany remain divided.
    Frederick the Great of Prussia (1740-1786)][Image Frederick the Great of Prussia and 2] continued the trend.
  3. Russia - Emerges at this time.
    Peter the Great
    Catherine II the Great of Russia (b.1729-r.1762-d.1796) [Image Catherine II the Great of Russia and 2]
    German-born Tsarina, who emulated absolutism, but gave over the peasants to the nobility.

Others

  • Italy
    remained divided with inefficient old-fashioned governments and some republics. Even though it had a large population, it was politically insignificant.
  • England and Holland
    Will be looked at in next class.

X. Conclusion

  • Absolutism is the political actuality of the Ancien Regime.
  • We have seen it was a development of Early Modern, not medieval Europe.
  • It was background to French Revolution and also to the Enlightenment.

Web Exercise

Your web exercise this week is to find information about monarchies in modern countries. Because the United States is a republic, monarchs often seem out-dated and remote. But many countries are still run by monarchs.

   What sort of power do modern monarchs have?
   What do their subjects think of them?
   Why do monarchies persist in the modern world?

Your project here is to find out answers to these questions, and to post your findings answers in the Caucus Conference. (You can do this by cutting and pasting results - cut the texts from a web site and past it into a caucus message. Make sure to add your own comments!)

To answer these questions, try looking at online newspapers from countries with monarchs: e.g. Britain, Canada, Japan, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, or Malaysia. To find some online newspapers, see the Search page.

Remember to evaluate the web sources you find according to the  Guidelines on How to Evalute Web Data and by using the Checklist.

Discussion Questions

  1. What aspects of Louis XIV's government are still used by all modern governments? [See the goals at the top of this page. This is the crucial question here.]
  2. What are the advantages of monarchy as a system of government? Why do some modern Western countries keep their monarchies?
  3. What seems "old-fashioned" about absolutist states?

Go to Caucus Conference to discuss these questions.

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created 9/11/1998 : revised 4/19/1999