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Brooklyn College Core Curriculum:
The Shaping of the Modern World

Section 9: The Conservative Order Transformed

Introduction: This Week's Goals

This week we begin our consideration of the 19th century. This was the century in which Europe's lead in Industrial growth enabled it to establish political and economic control of much of the world.  But it was also a century in which intellectuals and politicians outlined a series of ideological systems that continue to have some importance. In the next few weeks we shall look at these: liberalism, nationalism, socialism, Darwinism, and so forth.

But the 19th century also saw the emergence of new types of conservative thought in the wake of the French Revolution.

  • Some political leaders tried to reassert the traditional claims of monarchy and dynasty.   We can call this "reactionary" politics.
  • Others who disliked the ideal of radical liberalism, outlined a political philosophy that admired order and restraint, but admitted that change should and could take place. We can call this "conservatism," and we will look once again at the writings of Edmund Burke. [We skipped over him rather too quickly in the French Revolution section]

The century's dominant ideology in the arts was romanticism. Some Romantics were political liberals, but as an intellectual and aesthetic movement it validated the claims of tradition above all.  Romanticism exalted feeling over thought, loved to invoke emotion, and rejected the Industrial revolution.

Both political conservatism and romanticism remained important throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.

In this section then, we seek:

  • To understand the post-Napoleonic international political system.
  • To be able to identify "reactionary" political leaders and their goals.
  • To understand the themes of "conservatism."
  • To trace the rise of romanticism, and identify its major figures in the arts.

Text

Kagan, 699-717, 721-51

Multimedia

Sources

Outline

I. Introduction: The 19th Century: Power and Ideology

We begin again at 1815, even though we have gone ahead in the section on the Industrial Revolution. Here we are looking at wide developments rather than political minutiae. The 19th century was relatively peaceful in Europe - no large scale wars, but many overseas conflicts as new kind of empire is built up. We have already looked at how Europe was changing due to the effects of the Industrial revolution. This is always in the background.

The main political developments.

  • The spread of political ideologies, derived somewhat from the French Revolution.
    • Liberalism
    • Nationalism
  • The unification of the Italian and German states.
  • The collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the destabilization of South Eastern Europe
  • The growth of great European overseas empires, and the emergence of Britain as the world's greatest power.
  • A new political force/ideology that arose from the new classes unleashed by industrialization - Socialism (Trade unionist and Marxist)

This section is called "Power and Ideology" because the nineteenth century witnessed many struggles where the outcome was determined by military or industrial might, both within the European world and outside it. But it was also a century in which a series of competing and conflicting ideologies for political action were worked out. These ideologies built on the Industrial Revolution and on the French Revolution.

One focus of both a "brute power" and an "ideological" explanation of the period is the year 1848 during which a series of revolutions which affected all of Europe took place. They provide a focus for us to transfer our attention from the post-Napoleonic Europe, to one where these ideologies begin to bear fruit.

II. The Political Settlement in 1815: The Congress of Vienna and Metternich

The Congress of Vienna Sept 1814-Nov 1815

Four Powers dominate - Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia.

Key People

  • Viscount Robert Castlereagh (GB) 1769-1822
  • Prince Klemens von Metternich (Aust) 1773-1859
  • Talleyrand (France)

Principles

  1. No one power should dominate
    Britain and Austria stopped Prussia and Russia getting upper hand - and all of Poland and Saxony.
    The concept of Balance of Power in Europe: No one European state would be allowed to dominate the continent.
  2. Restoration of legitimate monarchs.
    The old royal families of France, Spain, and the Italian states were restored. (Germany was "rationalized": its earlier 300 statelets were reduced to about thirty).
  3. France should be contained.
    Holland was made strong with by being given the old "Austrian Netherlands" (i.e. Belgium), Austria was given North Italy, and Prussia given the Rhineland (which now made Prussia a Western European power for the first time).
  4. There was a non-vindictive boundary settlement with France. France could keep the boundaries of 1792 - so it in fact lost nothing because of the war.

The "Concert of Europe"

There were plans to maintain order by having frequent meetings - continued for a few years - the so called Concert of Europe, but soon disagreements made this redundant. However, there was no major general war in Europe for a hundred years. The Balance of Power worked.

III. Reactionary Politics in Europe 1815-1830

After the French Rev, Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) a real effort was made to restore the conservative political and social order  in Europe. The international peace created by the Balance of Power enabled states to established string internal controls.

Many of the old institutions had great staying power: monarchies, the landed aristocracy, and the Church.

But there was something new. In the Old Regime (i.e. before the French Revolution) the monarchy, the aristocracy and the Church had often been in conflict.  But now there French revolution had shown new dangers, and so there was a new self-conscious alliance of throne, land and altar. All stood against the new ideas launched by the French Revolution.

A. Austria

The Austrian Empire dominated central Europe.  Austria was a cosmopolitan state, existing because of its Habsburg dynasty. Nationalism and liberalism worked against loyalty to one dynasty, and against the existence of the state. Its great political leader was Prince Klemens von Metternich epitomized reactionary conservatism. Anything else would destroy Austria.

Metternich also opposed moves to constitutionalism in German states - since Austria was a part of Germany, and calls for a united Germany would  pose a danger to Austria.

B. Prussia

The ruling class in Prussia - a landed aristocracy known as Junkers were allied with the army and King Fredrick William III and opposed German nationalism. They were interested in preserving the political power and social prominence of their class.

Fredrick William III had almost taken chance to be a constitutional monarch, but backed down in 1817.

C. Events in the German Speaking Lands

Carlsbad Decrees 1819
Showed the fear of the state for nationalism and liberalism. These decrees banned student associations [Burschenschaften] - which advocated replacing local loyalties with loyalty to a united German state. Secret police went into operation in many German states. Censorship was imposed in universities.

Progressive industrialization
Despite efforts at a political clampdown, industry was transforming Germany, especially Prussia's Rhineland. New political forces were transforming the reality on the ground. In particular economic predominance was moving from landholders to industrial capitalists.

D. France

The Bourbon Restoration

The Bourbon monarchy was restored in 1815.

The first new king, Louis XVIII (a brother of the Louis XVI who had been executed) was a fairly mild ruler in fact.

He issued The Charter 1814. It permitted religious toleration, but made Catholicism the official religion.  It did not disturb property changes since 1789.

The next king proved to be a problem - Charles X in 1824.  He was too conservative, tried to overturn the Charter, after liberals scored a victory in Elections to Chamber of Deputies.

Revolution of 1830

Charles X faced a revolution in 1830 (this is the one featured in Les Miserables). Primarily a political revolt.  But once again Paris workers - following an economic downturn after 1827 - took to the streets.

Middle class deputies seized moment to bring about a constitutional monarchy - they did not want another radical revolution - fear of workers.

The revolt in July 1830 revolt brought King Louis Philippe (a distant relative of the Bourbon dynasty) to throne. He accepted The Charter  as a right of the people.

The Liberal "July Monarchy"

Louis Phillippe's rule, from 1830-1848 is known as the "July Monarchy". He paid tribute to the French Revolution.  For instance France now adopted the Tricolor as its flag, Catholicism was no longer the state religion, but seen as religion of the majority of the people. Louis Philippe built the Arc de Triomphe and brought back Napoleon's body.

But this  monarchy basically ruled in favor of the rich upper middle class. Peerage abolished but landed oligarchy maintain power.

E. Britain

Return of the Tories

Following the defeat of Napoleon, a very conservative "Tory" government takes over in Britain. Its goals were to support the interests of the traditional country landowner. But this was against the massively shifting social and economic background of the Industrial revolution.

The Tories tried to clamp down.

Political and police coercion was used. Famously at Peterloo in 1819 a peaceful political gathering was attacked by troops.

Economic conservatism in favor of landowners. The "Corn Laws" ("corn" in England means "wheat" not "maize")  kept foreign bread out and  increased wealth of landed class. (An anti-bourgeois measure)

Some loosening in late 1820s.

In the North - Manchester - political campaigns for reform of Parliament and economy. Free Trade.

The Rise of Liberalism - 1832

1832 - Great Reform Bill - compromise with the middle class prevents revolution. It was not democratic - middle class did not have majority but it sets a trend.

From 1832 on, British politics was essentially "liberal". This is not the "liberalism" of today, but a political ideology which promoted market economics and efficient government. "Liberals" were the party of business interests.

In 1846 they even repealed of Corn Laws - and British Politics spent the next 30 years in a period of realignment.

Britain alone is changed by reform rather than revolution. Contributing factors:

  • The very size of the industrial and commercial class
  • A strong respect for civil liberties in the British tradition.
  • A tradition of liberal Whig Aristocrats.

British Conservatism

Resistance to liberalism in England was diffuse.  There was no place for "reaction" since Britain was already a constitutional monarchy. But many groups were unhappy with the coldness of liberal politics.  Eventually political leaders such a Robert Peel, and (most importantly) Benjamin Disraeli evolved a new form of conservatism. in doing this they drew on the work of Edmund Burke.

F. Russia

The most reactionary country of all.

After the blows dealt by Napoleon, the Russian monarchy opposed all change. It also gained a reputation as great military power.

Extreme reaction occurred under Tsar Nicholas I who adopted a policy of   "Official Nationalism," with the slogan "Orthodoxy, Aristocracy, and Nationalism."

He opposed liberals, kept serfdom, and resisted any change. This had the effect of alienating almost all thinking people from the regime

IV. Challenges to the Conservative Order

Metternich's basic system was to last until 1848, later in some places, but was to be blown away by Liberalism, and Nationalism. There were some early warnings.

Wars of Independence

A number of countries changed the 1815 settlement quite early.

Greece broke from Turkey in 1821. (Led by Ypsilanti).

Belgium, a Catholic region given to Calvinist Netherlands in 1815, took advantage of the July days in France 1830 to fight for independence. Its army defeated the Dutch - becomes a neutral state 1831. [That was to be the official cause of WWI, when Germany invaded and Britain entered the war to defend Belgium]

Latin America - from 1810 on, broke with Spain and Portugal.

V. Romanticism

  • Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: Faust, 1808, [At Clinch Valley College]
  • William Wordsworth (1770-1850): Tintern Abbey

The Enlightenment and Classicism

The dominant themes of much Enlightenment discussion included a belief in "cosmopolitanism" -- i.e. all human beings were considered to be part of one society;  the absolute value of reason over emotion; and an admiration for the restraint and perfection of ancient Greek and Roman art (i.e.  "Classical Art"). 

Romanticism rejects all three themes in favor of  particularism/individualism, "feeling," and emotion in art.

Rousseau and Romanticism

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-78): Emile

Rousseau was the real forerunner of Romanticism, a sort of reaction to both empiricism and rationalism that rejected reason as only criterion of truth and which exalted feelings.

This was Rousseau's greatest effect in his lifetime was with his novel Emile, which encouraged parents to love their children, although of course Rousseau was no example of this.

There was a sort of cult around Rousseau among women readers. He spread respect for feelings and the common people and, despite way he treated his own children, people were inspired by his writings to look after their own: in some ways he was the beginning of modern humanitarianism.

Rousseau also promoted the idea of the Noble Savage, in Discours sur l'origine de l'inegalite parmi les hommes - 1755. This is. of course in contrast to his view in On the Social Contract that you should try to make people better.

The Gothic Phase

  • Neo Gothic Architecture
  • Strawberry Hill, London

German Romanticism

  • Goethe
  • Fichte

English Romanticism

  • De Quincy
  • Coleridge
  • Wordsworth

Romanticism and Music

  • Beethoven
  • Brahms
  • Rachmaninov

Romanticism and Nationalism

Web Exercise

[This exercise assumes your have a sound card on the computer you use. If not, you could do this with regular CDs.]

Find on the WWW some classical music sites which allow you to hear music. These can be MP3, WAV/AU, RealAudio or MIDI sites.

Locate and listen to a piece of music by either Mozart or Haydn. Post the URL and try to explain what makes this music "classical."

Locate and listen to a piece of music by Brahms, Dvorak, Rachmaninov, or Tchaikovsky.   Post the URL and try to explain what makes this music "romantic."

Discussion Questions

1. What is the difference between "reactionary" politics and the "conservatism" of writers such as Edmund Burke?

2. What were the advantages and disadvantages of the "balance of power" ystem of international relations?

2. What is the difference between "romance" and "romanticism."   Find and give examples of:

  • Romantic literature/ Non-romantic literature
  • Romantic buildings/ Non-romantic buildings
  • Romantic painting/ Non-romantic painting
  • Romantic philosophy/ Non-romantic philosophy

Try to explain in your own words what was the core appeal of Romanticism.

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